Bianchi, M. and Broggini, M. Anti-hyperalgesic effects of nimesulide: studies in rats and humans. Int J Clin.Pract.Suppl 2002;(128):11-19. View abstract.
Buck, C. B., Thompson, C. D., Roberts, J. N., Muller, M., Lowy, D. R., and Schiller, J. T. Carrageenan is a potent inhibitor of papillomavirus infection. PLoS.Pathog. 2006;2(7):e69. View abstract.
Carlucci, M. J., Scolaro, L. A., and Damonte, E. B. Inhibitory action of natural carrageenans on Herpes simplex virus infection of mouse astrocytes. Chemotherapy 1999;45(6):429-436. View abstract.
Carlucci, M. J., Scolaro, L. A., Noseda, M. D., Cerezo, A. S., and Damonte, E. B. Protective effect of a natural carrageenan on genital herpes simplex virus infection in mice. Antiviral Res. 2004;64(2):137-141. View abstract.
Coggins, C., Blanchard, K., Alvarez, F., Brache, V., Weisberg, E., Kilmarx, P. H., Lacarra, M., Massai, R., Mishell, D., Jr., Salvatierra, A., Witwatwongwana, P., Elias, C., and Ellertson, C. Preliminary safety and acceptability of a carrageenan gel for possible use as a vaginal microbicide. Sex Transm.Infect. 2000;76(6):480-483. View abstract.
Cummins, J. E., Jr., Guarner, J., Flowers, L., Guenthner, P. C., Bartlett, J., Morken, T., Grohskopf, L. A., Paxton, L., and Dezzutti, C. S. Preclinical testing of candidate topical microbicides for anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 activity and tissue toxicity in a human cervical explant culture. Antimicrob.Agents Chemother. 2007;51(5):1770-1779. View abstract.
Dumelod, B. D., Ramirez, R. P., Tiangson, C. L., Barrios, E. B., and Panlasigui, L. N. Carbohydrate availability of arroz caldo with lambda-carrageenan. Int.J.Food Sci.Nutr. 1999;50(4):283-289. View abstract.
Elias, C. J., Coggins, C., Alvarez, F., Brache, V., Fraser, I. S., Lacarra, M., Lahteenmaki, P., Massai, R., Mishell, D. R., Jr., Phillips, D. M., and Salvatierra, A. M. Colposcopic evaluation of a vaginal gel formulation of iota-carrageenan. Contraception 1997;56(6):387-389. View abstract.
Flower, R. J., Harvey, E. A., and Kingston, W. P. Inflammatory effects of prostaglandin D2 in rat and human skin. Br.J Pharmacol. 1976;56(2):229-233. View abstract.
Kilmarx, P. H., van de Wijgert, J. H., Chaikummao, S., Jones, H. E., Limpakarnjanarat, K., Friedland, B. A., Karon, J. M., Manopaiboon, C., Srivirojana, N., Yanpaisarn, S., Supawitkul, S., Young, N. L., Mock, P. A., Blanchard, K., and Mastro, T. D. Safety and acceptability of the candidate microbicide Carraguard in Thai Women: findings from a Phase II Clinical Trial. J Acquir.Immune.Defic.Syndr. 11-1-2006;43(3):327-334. View abstract.
Maguire, R. A., Bergman, N., and Phillips, D. M. Comparison of microbicides for efficacy in protecting mice against vaginal challenge with herpes simplex virus type 2, cytotoxicity, antibacterial properties, and sperm immobilization. Sex Transm.Dis. 2001;28(5):259-265. View abstract.
Ogino, M., Majima, M., Kawamura, M., Hatanaka, K., Saito, M., Harada, Y., and Katori, M. Increased migration of neutrophils to granulocyte-colony stimulating factor in rat carrageenin-induced pleurisy: roles of complement, bradykinin, and inducible cyclooxygenase-2. Inflamm.Res. 1996;45(7):335-346. View abstract.
Panlasigui, L. N., Baello, O. Q., Dimatangal, J. M., and Dumelod, B. D. Blood cholesterol and lipid-lowering effects of carrageenan on human volunteers. Asia Pac.J.Clin.Nutr. 2003;12(2):209-214. View abstract.
Perotti, M. E., Pirovano, A., and Phillips, D. M. Carrageenan formulation prevents macrophage trafficking from vagina: implications for microbicide development. Biol.Reprod. 2003;69(3):933-939. View abstract.
Tobacman, J. K. Review of harmful gastrointestinal effects of carrageenan in animal experiments. Environ.Health Perspect. 2001;109(10):983-994. View abstract.
Tobacman, J. K., Wallace, R. B., and Zimmerman, M. B. Consumption of carrageenan and other water-soluble polymers used as food additives and incidence of mammary carcinoma. Med.Hypotheses 2001;56(5):589-598. View abstract.
Watanabe, K., Reddy, B. S., Wong, C. Q., and Weisburger, J. H. Effect of dietary undegraded carrageenan on colon carcinogenesis in F344 rats treated with azoxymethane or methylnitrosourea. Cancer Res. 1978;38(12):4427-4430. View abstract.
Whitehead, S. J., Kilmarx, P. H., Blanchard, K., Manopaiboon, C., Chaikummao, S., Friedland, B., Achalapong, J., Wankrairoj, M., Mock, P., Thanprasertsuk, S., and Tappero, J. W. Acceptability of Carraguard vaginal gel use among Thai couples. AIDS 11-14-2006;20(17):2141-2148. View abstract.
Zacharopoulos, V. R. and Phillips, D. M. Vaginal formulations of carrageenan protect mice from herpes simplex virus infection. Clin.Diagn.Lab Immunol. 1997;4(4):465-468. View abstract.
Bhattacharyya S, Feferman L, Unterman T, Tobacman JK. Exposure to common food additive carrageenan alone leads to fasting hyperglycemia and in combination with high fat diet exacerbates glucose intolerance and hyperlipidemia without effect on weight. J. Diabetes Res. 2015;2015:513429. View abstract.
Bhattacharyya S, Shumard T, Xie H, et al. A randomized trial of the effects of the no-carrageenan diet on ulcerative colitis disease activity. Nutr Healthy Aging. 2017;4(2):181-92. View abstract.
Eccles R, Meier C, Jawad M, Weinmüllner R, Grassauer A, Prieschl-Grassauer E. Efficacy and safety of an antiviral Iota-Carrageenan nasal spray: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled exploratory study in volunteers with early symptoms of the common cold. Respir Res. 2010;11:108. View abstract.
Eccles R, Winther B, Johnston SL, Robinson P, Trampisch M, Koelsch S. Efficacy and safety of iota-carrageenan nasal spray versus placebo in early treatment of the common cold in adults: the ICICC trial. Respir Res. 2015;16:121. View abstract.
Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Title 21, Chapter 1, Subchapter B, Part 172: food additives permitted for direct addition to food for human consumption. Available at:
https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=59189f37d05de4dda57b07856d8d56f8&mc=true&node=pt21.3.172&rgn=div5#se21.3.172_1515
Electronic Code of Federal Regulations. Title 21. Part 182 -- Substances Generally Recognized As Safe. Available at: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=182
European Commission. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on Carrageenan. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/safety/docs/sci-com_scf_out164_en.pdf
Fazekas T, Eickhoff P, Pruckner N, et al. Lessons learned from a double-blind randomised placebo-controlled study with a iota-carrageenan nasal spray as medical device in children with acute symptoms of common cold. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2012;12:147. View abstract.
Feferman L, Bhattacharyya S, Oates E, et al. Carrageenan-free diet shows improved glucose tolerance and insulin signaling in prediabetes: a randomized, pilot clinical trial. J Diabetes Res. 2020 Apr 21;2020:8267980. doi: 10.1155/2020/8267980. View abstract.
Fetrow CW, Avila JR. Professional's Handbook of Complementary & Alternative Medicines. 1st ed. Springhouse, PA: Springhouse Corp., 1999.
Hebar A, Koller C, Seifert JM, et al. Non-clinical safety evaluation of intranasal iota-carrageenan. PLoS One. 2015;10(4):e0122911. View abstract.
Ludwig M, Enzenhofer E, Schneider S, et al. Efficacy of a carrageenan nasal spray in patients with common cold: a randomized controlled trial. Respir Res. 2013;14:124. View abstract.
Paris quadrifolia L. U.S. National Plant Germplasm System. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=410335. Accessed April 30, 2020.
Qiu X, Zhong W. Antihyperglycemic and antihyperlipidemic effects of low-molecular-weight carrageenan in rats. Open Life Sci. 2018;13:379-84. View abstract.
Technical evaluation report: carrageenan. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) National Organic Program. https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/Carrageenan%20TR%202011.pdf. Published October 3, 2011. Accessed July 15, 2020.
Zhou J, Wang F, Chen J, et al. Long-term kappa-carrageenan consumption leads to moderate metabolic disorder by blocking insulin binding. Pharmacol Res. 2021 Mar;165:105417. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.105417. View abstract.