Overview
The benefits of fish oil seem to come from its omega-3 fatty acid content. Fish that are especially rich in these oils include mackerel, herring, tuna, and salmon. The body doesn't produce many of its own omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids reduce pain and swelling, and also prevent the blood from clotting easily.
Some fish oil products are approved by the FDA as prescription medications to lower triglycerides levels. Fish oil is also available as a supplement. Fish oil supplements do not contain the same amount of fish oil as prescription products, so they cannot be used in place of prescription products. Fish oil supplements are sometimes used for heart health and mental health, but there is no strong evidence to support most of these uses.
Do not confuse fish oil with EPA, DHA, cod liver oil, flaxseed oil, krill oil, or shark liver oil. See the separate listings for these topics.
Uses & Effectiveness ?
Effective for
- High levels of fats called triglycerides in the blood (hypertriglyceridemia). Taking certain fish oil prescription drugs by mouth, including Lovaza, Omtryg, and Epanova, reduces very high triglyceride levels. These products are most often taken at a dose of 4 grams daily. While some non-prescription fish oil supplements might also help, these products contain less omega-3 fatty acids than the prescription fish oil products. People would need to take as many as 12 capsules of fish oil supplements daily to get the same effect as prescription fish oil.
Possibly Effective for
- A procedure to open a blocked or narrowed blood vessel (angioplasty). Taking fish oil by mouth decreases the rate of blood vessel re-blockage by up to 45% when taken for at least 3 weeks before an angioplasty and continued for one month after.
- Involuntary weight loss in people who are very ill (cachexia or wasting syndrome). Taking a high dose of fish oil by mouth seems to slow weight loss in some cancer patients. Low doses of fish oil don't seem to have this effect.
- Kidney damage caused by the drug cyclosporine. Taking fish oil seems to prevent kidney damage in people taking cyclosporine. Fish oil also seems to improve kidney function in people who recently rejected a transplanted kidney and are taking cyclosporine.
- Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea). Taking fish oil, alone or with vitamin B12 or vitamin E, can improve painful periods and reduce the need for pain medications for menstrual cramps.
- Nausea and vomiting caused by an infection of the intestines. Taking fish oil during pregnancy seems to reduce the risk of the child having nausea and vomiting from an infection of the intestines.
- Heart failure. Consuming higher amounts of fish oil from foods has been linked with a lower risk of heart failure. Eating 1-2 servings of non-fried fish per week is recommended. It's too soon to know if taking fish oil supplements helps prevent heart failure. But taking fish oil supplements by mouth might reduce the risk of death or hospitalization in people that already have heart failure.
- Abnormal levels of blood fats in people with HIV/AIDS. Taking fish oil supplements by mouth reduces triglyceride levels in people with abnormal cholesterol levels caused by HIV/AIDS treatment.
- High blood pressure. Taking fish oil by mouth seems to slightly lower blood pressure in people with moderate to very high blood pressure. It's not clear if it helps people with slightly high blood pressure or those who are already on blood pressure-lowering medications.
- A condition that slowly leads to kidney disease (IgA nephropathy). Taking fish oil by mouth for 2-4 years can slow the loss of kidney function in high-risk patients with IgA nephropathy. It's not clear if it helps when taken short-term, or in low-risk patients.
- Build up of fat in the liver in people who drink little or no alcohol (nonalcoholic fatty liver disease or NAFLD). Taking fish oil by mouth might reduce liver fat and improve liver health in people with NAFLD.
- Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Taking fish oil by mouth, alone or together with the drug naproxen, seems to help improve symptoms of RA. However, taking fish oil does not seem to prevent RA.
Possibly Ineffective for
- An eye disease that leads to vision loss in older adults (age-related macular degeneration or AMD). People who eat fish more than once weekly have a reduced risk of developing age-related vision loss. But taking fish oil by mouth for up to 6 years does not prevent vision loss or slow down its progression.
- Chest pain (angina). Taking fish oil supplements by mouth does not reduce the risk of death or improve heart health in people with chest pain.
- Hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis). Taking fish oil by mouth doesn't slow the progression or improve symptoms of atherosclerosis.
- Eczema (atopic dermatitis). Taking fish oil supplements doesn't help treat or prevent eczema. But children who eat fish at least once weekly from the age of 1-2 years seem to have a lower risk of developing eczema.
- Irregular heartbeat (atrial fibrillation). Eating fatty fish or taking fish oil supplements by mouth does not reduce the risk of irregular heartbeat. In fact, the risk of irregular heartbeat might be increased in some people taking fish oil supplements.
- A lung disease that affects newborns (bronchopulmonary dysplasia). Giving fish oil by mouth to premature infants doesn't seem to reduce the infant's risk of developing this lung disease.
- Long-term blood flow problems in the brain (cerebrovascular diseases). Eating fish might reduce the risk of cerebrovascular disease. But taking fish oil supplements by mouth doesn't have this effect.
- Memory and thinking skills (cognitive function). Taking fish oil supplements by mouth does not improve most memory or thinking skills in older people, young adults, or children.
- A digestive tract infection that can lead to ulcers (Helicobacter pylori or H. pylori). Taking fish oil supplements by mouth does not seem to improve H. pylori infections when compared to standard medications.
- Kidney transplant. Taking fish oil by mouth doesn't help people live longer after a kidney transplant. It also doesn't seem to prevent the body from rejecting the transplant.
- Breast pain (mastalgia). Taking fish oil by mouth doesn't seem to reduce long-term breast pain.
- Multiple sclerosis (MS). Taking fish oil by mouth doesn't seem to improve symptoms in people with MS.
- Osteoarthritis. Taking fish oil by mouth doesn't improve pain or function in people with osteoarthritis. But it might help overweight people with osteoarthritis-like pain.
- High blood pressure during pregnancy. Taking fish oil by mouth does not seem to prevent high blood pressure during pregnancy.
- A pregnancy complication marked by high blood pressure and protein in the urine (pre-eclampsia). Taking fish oil by mouth does not seem to prevent pre-eclampsia.
- A mental disorder marked by hallucinations and delusion (psychosis). Taking fish oil by mouth does not seem to prevent or reduce symptoms of psychosis.
- Sudden chest pain that may occur while resting (unstable angina). Taking fish oil by mouth does not seem to prevent this condition.
- Abnormal rapid heart rhythms (ventricular arrhythmias). Taking fish oil by mouth does not affect the risk for abnormal heart rhythms or reduce the risk of death in people with abnormal rapid heart rhythms.
Likely InEffective for
- Diabetes. Taking fish oil by mouth doesn't lower blood sugar in people with type 2 diabetes. It also doesn't reduce the risk of certain complications of diabetes, such as heart attack and stroke. But taking fish oil by mouth might lower blood fats called triglycerides in people with diabetes.
Side Effects
Consuming high amounts of fish oil from DIETARY sources is possibly unsafe. Some fish are contaminated with mercury and other chemicals. Fish oil supplements typically do not contain these chemicals.
When applied to the skin: There isn't enough reliable information to know if fish oil is safe or what the side effects might be.
Special Precautions and Warnings
Consuming high amounts of fish oil from DIETARY sources is possibly unsafe. Some fish are contaminated with mercury and other chemicals. Fish oil supplements typically do not contain these chemicals.
When applied to the skin: There isn't enough reliable information to know if fish oil is safe or what the side effects might be.
Pregnancy and breast-feeding: Fish oil supplements are likely safe when taken by mouth. Taking fish oil does not seem to affect the fetus during pregnancy or the baby while breast-feeding. But swordfish, king mackerel, and tilefish should be avoided during pregnancy, by those who may become pregnant, and while breast-feeding. These fish might contain high levels of mercury and may contain other toxins. Limit consumption of other fish to 12 ounces/week (about 3 to 4 servings/week). Consuming fatty fish in high amounts is possibly unsafe.
Children: Fish oil supplements are possibly safe when taken by mouth. In adolescents, fish oil has been used safely in doses of up to about 2.2 grams daily for 12 weeks. But young children should not eat more than two ounces of fish per week. Consuming fish oil from DIETARY sources in large amounts is possibly unsafe. Fatty fish contain toxins such as mercury. Eating contaminated fish frequently can cause serious adverse effects in children.
Bipolar disorder: Taking fish oil might increase some of the symptoms of this condition.
Liver disease: Fish oil might increase the risk of bleeding in people with liver scarring due to liver disease.
Diabetes: Taking high doses of fish oil might make it more difficult to control blood sugar levels.
Familial adenomatous polyposis: There is some concern that fish oil might further increase the risk of getting cancer in people with this condition.
Conditions in which the immune system response is lowered (including HIV/AIDS): Higher doses of fish oil can lower the body's immune system response. This could be a problem for people whose immune system is already weak.
An implanted device to prevent irregular heartbeat: Fish oil might increase the risk of irregular heartbeat in patients with an implanted defibrillator. Stay on the safe side and avoid fish oil supplements.
Fish or seafood allergy: Some people who are allergic to seafood such as fish might also be allergic to fish oil supplements. There is no reliable information showing how likely people with seafood allergy are to have an allergic reaction to fish oil. Until more is known, advise patients allergic to seafood to avoid or use fish oil supplements cautiously.
Interactions ?
Medications for high blood pressure (Antihypertensive drugs) interacts with FISH OIL
Fish oil might lower blood pressure. Taking fish oil along with medications that lower blood pressure might cause blood pressure to go too low. Monitor your blood pressure closely.
Birth control pills (Contraceptive drugs) interacts with FISH OIL
Fish oil is sometimes used to lower triglyceride levels. Birth control pills might reduce this effect if taken with fish oil.
Orlistat (Xenical, Alli) interacts with FISH OIL
Orlistat might keep the beneficial fatty acids in fish oil from being absorbed by the body. Taking fish oil and orlistat at least 2 hours apart may keep this from happening.
Cyclosporine (Neoral, Sandimmune) interacts with FISH OIL
Fish oil might increase how much cyclosporine is in the body. Taking fish oil with cyclosporine might increase the effects and side effects of cyclosporine.
Sirolimus (Rapamune) interacts with FISH OIL
Fish oil might increase how much sirolimus is in the body. This might increase the effects and side effects of sirolimus.
Tacrolimus (Prograf) interacts with FISH OIL
Fish oil might increase how much tacrolimus is in the body. This might increase the effects and side effects of tacrolimus.
Moderate Interaction
Be cautious with this combination
Medications that slow blood clotting (Anticoagulant / Antiplatelet drugs) interacts with FISH OIL
Fish oil might slow blood clotting. Taking fish oil along with medications that also slow blood clotting might increase the risk of bruising and bleeding.
Warfarin (Coumadin) interacts with FISH OIL
Warfarin is used to slow blood clotting. Fish oil might also slow blood clotting. Taking fish oil with warfarin might slow blood clotting too much and increase the risk of bleeding. Until more is known, use cautiously in combination with warfarin. Have your blood checked regularly, as your dose of warfarin might need to be changed.
Medications for cancer (Platinum agents) interacts with FISH OIL
Some fish oil products contain a fatty acid that might reduce the effects of some chemotherapy drugs, called platinum agents. But the amount of this fatty acid in most fish oil products is probably too low to be a concern. There is no need to stop taking fish oil if you are also taking platinum agents.
Minor Interaction
Be watchful with this combination
Dosing
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Albert, C. M., Hennekens, C. H., O'Donnell, C. J., Ajani, U. A., Carey, V. J., Willett, W. C., Ruskin, J. N., and Manson, J. E. Fish consumption and risk of sudden cardiac death. JAMA 1-7-1998;279(1):23-28. View abstract.
Alexopoulos, E., Stangou, M., Pantzaki, A., Kirmizis, D., and Memmos, D. Treatment of severe IgA nephropathy with omega-3 fatty acids: the effect of a "very low dose" regimen. Ren Fail. 2004;26(4):453-459. View abstract.
Almallah, Y. Z., Richardson, S., O'Hanrahan, T., Mowat, N. A., Brunt, P. W., Sinclair, T. S., Ewen, S., Heys, S. D., and Eremin, O. Distal procto-colitis, natural cytotoxicity, and essential fatty acids. Am.J.Gastroenterol. 1998;93(5):804-809. View abstract.
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Amminger, G. P., Berger, G. E., Schafer, M. R., Klier, C., Friedrich, M. H., and Feucht, M. Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation in children with autism: a double-blind randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study. Biol.Psychiatry 2-15-2007;61(4):551-553. View abstract.
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Arteaga, A., Villanueva, C. L., Skorin, C., Guasch, V., Solis, de Ovando, Velasco, N., Acosta, A. M., and Leighton, F. [Dyslipidemic patients with coronary cardiopathy. Effect of different doses of OMEGA-3 fatty acids on serum lipids and lipoproteins]. Rev Med Chil. 1993;121(6):618-625. View abstract.
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Aslan, A. and Triadafilopoulos, G. Fish oil fatty acid supplementation in active ulcerative colitis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Am J Gastroenterol 1992;87(4):432-437. View abstract.
Augood, C., Chakravarthy, U., Young, I., Vioque, J., de Jong, P. T., Bentham, G., Rahu, M., Seland, J., Soubrane, G., Tomazzoli, L., Topouzis, F., Vingerling, J. R., and Fletcher, A. E. Oily fish consumption, dietary docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid intakes, and associations with neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;88(2):398-406. View abstract.
Bahadori, B., Uitz, E., Thonhofer, R., Trummer, M., Pestemer-Lach, I., McCarty, M., and Krejs, G. J. omega-3 Fatty acids infusions as adjuvant therapy in rheumatoid arthritis. JPEN J Parenter.Enteral Nutr 2010;34(2):151-155. View abstract.
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Barberger-Gateau, P., Raffaitin, C., Letenneur, L., Berr, C., Tzourio, C., Dartigues, J. F., and Alperovitch, A. Dietary patterns and risk of dementia: the Three-City cohort study. Neurology 11-13-2007;69(20):1921-1930. View abstract.
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Baril, J. G., Kovacs, C. M., Trottier, S., Roederer, G., Martel, A. Y., Ackad, N., Koulis, T., and Sampalis, J. S. Effectiveness and tolerability of oral administration of low-dose salmon oil to HIV patients with HAART-associated dyslipidemia. HIV.Clin.Trials 2007;8(6):400-411. View abstract.
Baro, L., Fonolla, J., Pena, J. L., Martinez-Ferez, A., Lucena, A., Jimenez, J., Boza, J. J., and Lopez-Huertas, E. n-3 Fatty acids plus oleic acid and vitamin supplemented milk consumption reduces total and LDL cholesterol, homocysteine and levels of endothelial adhesion molecules in healthy humans. Clin.Nutr. 2003;22(2):175-182. View abstract.
Bartelt, S., Timm, M., Damsgaard, C. T., Hansen, E. W., Hansen, H. S., and Lauritzen, L. The effect of dietary fish oil-supplementation to healthy young men on oxidative burst measured by whole blood chemiluminescence. Br J Nutr 2008;99(6):1230-1238. View abstract.
Bartram, H. P., Gostner, A., Scheppach, W., Reddy, B. S., Rao, C. V., Dusel, G., Richter, F., Richter, A., and Kasper, H. Effects of fish oil on rectal cell proliferation, mucosal fatty acids, and prostaglandin E2 release in healthy subjects. Gastroenterology 1993;105(5):1317-1322. View abstract.
Bates, D., Cartlidge, N. E., French, J. M., Jackson, M. J., Nightingale, S., Shaw, D. A., Smith, S., Woo, E., Hawkins, S. A., Millar, J. H., and . A double-blind controlled trial of long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989;52(1):18-22. View abstract.
Bath-Hextall, F. J., Jenkinson, C., Humphreys, R., and Williams, H. C. Dietary supplements for established atopic eczema. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2012;2:CD005205. View abstract.
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Beavers, K. M., Beavers, D. P., Bowden, R. G., Wilson, R. L., and Gentile, M. Effect of over-the-counter fish-oil administration on plasma Lp(a) levels in an end-stage renal disease population. J Ren Nutr 2009;19(6):443-449. View abstract.
Beblo, S., Reinhardt, H., Demmelmair, H., Muntau, A. C., and Koletzko, B. Effect of fish oil supplementation on fatty acid status, coordination, and fine motor skills in children with phenylketonuria. J.Pediatr. 2007;150(5):479-484. View abstract.
Bell, S. J., Chavali, S., Bistrian, B. R., Connolly, C. A., Utsunomiya, T., and Forse, R. A. Dietary fish oil and cytokine and eicosanoid production during human immunodeficiency virus infection. JPEN J Parenter.Enteral Nutr. 1996;20(1):43-49. View abstract.
Bemelmans, W. J., Broer, J., Feskens, E. J., Smit, A. J., Muskiet, F. A., Lefrandt, J. D., Bom, V. J., May, J. F., and Meyboom-de Jong, B. Effect of an increased intake of alpha-linolenic acid and group nutritional education on cardiovascular risk factors: the Mediterranean Alpha-linolenic Enriched Groningen Dietary Intervention (MARGARIN) study. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;75(2):221-227. View abstract.
Benito, P., Caballero, J., Moreno, J., Gutierrez-Alcantara, C., Munoz, C., Rojo, G., Garcia, S., and Soriguer, F. C. Effects of milk enriched with omega-3 fatty acid, oleic acid and folic acid in patients with metabolic syndrome. Clin.Nutr. 2006;25(4):581-587. View abstract.
Bent, S., Bertoglio, K., Ashwood, P., Bostrom, A., and Hendren, R. L. A pilot randomized controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acids for autism spectrum disorder. J.Autism Dev.Disord. 2011;41(5):545-554. View abstract.
Berbert, A. A., Kondo, C. R., Almendra, C. L., Matsuo, T., and Dichi, I. Supplementation of fish oil and olive oil in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Nutrition 2005;21(2):131-136. View abstract.
Bergmann, R. L., Haschke-Becher, E., Klassen-Wigger, P., Bergmann, K. E., Richter, R., Dudenhausen, J. W., Grathwohl, D., and Haschke, F. Supplementation with 200 mg/day docosahexaenoic acid from mid-pregnancy through lactation improves the docosahexaenoic acid status of mothers with a habitually low fish intake and of their infants. Ann Nutr Metab 2008;52(2):157-166. View abstract.
Bethune, C., Seierstad, S. L., Seljeflot, I., Johansen, O., Arnesen, H., Meltzer, H. M., Rosenlund, G., Froyland, L., and Lundebye, A. K. Dietary intake of differently fed salmon: a preliminary study on contaminants. Eur J Clin Invest 2006;36(3):193-201. View abstract.
Bjorneboe, A., Smith, A. K., Bjorneboe, G. E., Thune, P. O., and Drevon, C. A. Effect of dietary supplementation with n-3 fatty acids on clinical manifestations of psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 1988;118(1):77-83. View abstract.
Bjornsson, S., Hardardottir, I., Gunnarsson, E., and Haraldsson, A. Dietary fish oil supplementation increases survival in mice following Klebsiella pneumoniae infection. Scand J Infect Dis 1997;29(5):491-493. View abstract.
Block, R. C., Harris, W. S., Reid, K. J., Sands, S. A., and Spertus, J. A. EPA and DHA in blood cell membranes from acute coronary syndrome patients and controls. Atherosclerosis 2008;197(2):821-828. View abstract.
Blok, W. L., Deslypere, J. P., Demacker, P. N., van, der, V, Hectors, M. P., van der Meer, J. W., and Katan, M. B. Pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in healthy volunteers fed various doses of fish oil for 1 year. Eur J Clin Invest 1997;27(12):1003-1008. View abstract.
Boberg, M., Pollare, T., Siegbahn, A., and Vessby, B. Supplementation with n-3 fatty acids reduces triglycerides but increases PAI-1 in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Eur J Clin Invest 1992;22(10):645-650. View abstract.
Bonaa, K. H., Bjerve, K. S., Straume, B., Gram, I. T., and Thelle, D. Effect of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on blood pressure in hypertension. A population-based intervention trial from the Tromso study. N Engl J Med 3-22-1990;322(12):795-801. View abstract.
Borchgrevink, C. F., Skaga, E., Berg, K. J., and Skjaeggestad, O. Absence of prophylactic effect of linolenic acid in patients with coronary heart-disease. Lancet 7-23-1966;2(7456):187-189. View abstract.
Borgeson, C. E., Pardini, L., Pardini, R. S., and Reitz, R. C. Effects of dietary fish oil on human mammary carcinoma and on lipid- metabolizing enzymes. Lipids 1989;24(4):290-295. View abstract.
Bosch, J., Gerstein, H. C., Dagenais, G. R., Diaz, R., Dyal, L., Jung, H., Maggiono, A. P., Probstfield, J., Ramachandran, A., Riddle, M. C., Ryden, L. E., and Yusuf, S. n-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with dysglycemia. N.Engl.J.Med. 7-26-2012;367(4):309-318. View abstract.
Bouwens, M., van de Rest, O., Dellschaft, N., Bromhaar, M. G., de Groot, L. C., Geleijnse, J. M., Muller, M., and Afman, L. A. Fish-oil supplementation induces antiinflammatory gene expression profiles in human blood mononuclear cells. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 2009;90(2):415-424. View abstract.
Bowden, R. G., Jitomir, J., Wilson, R. L., and Gentile, M. Effects of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on lipid levels in endstage renal disease patients. J.Ren Nutr. 2009;19(4):259-266. View abstract.
Bowden, R. G., Wilson, R. L., Deike, E., and Gentile, M. Fish oil supplementation lowers C-reactive protein levels independent of triglyceride reduction in patients with end-stage renal disease. Nutr.Clin.Pract. 2009;24(4):508-512. View abstract.
Bowden, R. G., Wilson, R. L., Gentile, M., Ounpraseuth, S., Moore, P., and Leutholtz, B. C. Effects of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on vascular access thrombosis in polytetrafluorethylene grafts. J Ren Nutr 2007;17(2):126-131. View abstract.
Braden, G. A., Knapp, H. R., Fitzgerald, D. J., and FitzGerald, G. A. Dietary fish oil accelerates the response to coronary thrombolysis with tissue-type plasminogen activator. Evidence for a modest platelet inhibitory effect in vivo. Circulation 1990;82(1):178-187. View abstract.
Brown, A. J. and Roberts, D. C. Fish and fish oil intake: effect on haematological variables related to cardiovascular disease. Thromb.Res 10-15-1991;64(2):169-178. View abstract.
Buckley, J. D., Burgess, S., Murphy, K. J., and Howe, P. R. DHA-rich fish oil lowers heart rate during submaximal exercise in elite Australian Rules footballers. J Sci Med Sport 2009;12(4):503-507. View abstract.
Bureyko, T., Hurdle, H., Metcalfe, J. B., Clandinin, M. T., and Mazurak, V. C. Reduced growth and integrin expression of prostate cells cultured with lycopene, vitamin E and fish oil in vitro. Br J Nutr 2009;101(7):990-997. View abstract.
Busnach, G., Stragliotto, E., Minetti, E., Perego, A., Brando, B., Broggi, M. L., and Civati, G. Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on cyclosporine pharmacokinetics in kidney graft recipients: a randomized placebo- controlled study. J Nephrol. 1998;11(2):87-93. View abstract.
Buydens-Branch, Branchey, M., and Hibbeln, J. R. Low plasma levels of docosahexaenoic acid are associated with an increased relapse vulnerability in substance abusers. Am J Addict. 2009;18(1):73-80. View abstract.
Cabre, E., Manosa, M., and Gassull, M. A. Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory bowel diseases - a systematic review. Br.J.Nutr. 2012;107 Suppl 2:S240-S252. View abstract.
Caniato, R. N., Alvarenga, M. E., and Garcia-Alcaraz, M. A. Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on the lipid profile of patients taking clozapine. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2006;40(8):691-697. View abstract.
Carlson, S. E., Werkman, S. H., and Tolley, E. A. Effect of long-chain n-3 fatty acid supplementation on visual acuity and growth of preterm infants with and without bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am.J Clin Nutr. 1996;63(5):687-697. View abstract.
Carroll, K. K. Biological effects of fish oils in relation to chronic diseases. Lipids 1986;21(12):731-732. View abstract.
Carter, V. M., Woolley, I., Jolley, D., Nyulasi, I., Mijch, A., and Dart, A. A randomised controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia in HIV-infected males on highly active antiretroviral therapy. Sex Health 2006;3(4):287-290. View abstract.
Castro, R., Queiros, J., Fonseca, I., Pimentel, J. P., Henriques, A. C., Sarmento, A. M., Guimaraes, S., and Pereira, M. C. Therapy of post-renal transplantation hyperlipidaemia: comparative study with simvastatin and fish oil. Nephrol Dial.Transplant. 1997;12(10):2140-2143. View abstract.
Caughey, G. E., James, M. J., Proudman, S. M., and Cleland, L. G. Fish oil supplementation increases the cyclooxygenase inhibitory activity of paracetamol in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Complement Ther.Med. 2010;18(3-4):171-174. View abstract.
Cerchietti, L. C., Navigante, A. H., and Castro, M. A. Effects of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic n-3 fatty acids from fish oil and preferential Cox-2 inhibition on systemic syndromes in patients with advanced lung cancer. Nutr.Cancer 2007;59(1):14-20. View abstract.
Chan, D. C., Watts, G. F., Barrett, P. H., Beilin, L. J., and Mori, T. A. Effect of atorvastatin and fish oil on plasma high-sensitivity C- reactive protein concentrations in individuals with visceral obesity. Clin Chem 2002;48(6 Pt 1):877-883. View abstract.
Chong, M. F., Lockyer, S., Saunders, C. J., and Lovegrove, J. A. Long chain n-3 PUFA-rich meal reduced postprandial measures of arterial stiffness. Clin.Nutr. 2010;29(5):678-681. View abstract.
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Christensen, J. H., Gustenhoff, P., Korup, E., Aaroe, J., Toft, E., Moller, J., Rasmussen, K., Dyerberg, J., and Schmidt, E. B. Effect of fish oil on heart rate variability in survivors of myocardial infarction: a double blind randomised controlled trial. BMJ 3-16-1996;312(7032):677-678. View abstract.
Chua, B., Flood, V., Rochtchina, E., Wang, J. J., Smith, W., and Mitchell, P. Dietary fatty acids and the 5-year incidence of age-related maculopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 2006;124(7):981-986. View abstract.
Cobiac, L., Clifton, P. M., Abbey, M., Belling, G. B., and Nestel, P. J. Lipid, lipoprotein, and hemostatic effects of fish vs fish-oil n-3 fatty acids in mildly hyperlipidemic males. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53(5):1210-1216. View abstract.
Cobiac, L., Nestel, P. J., Wing, L. M., and Howe, P. R. A low-sodium diet supplemented with fish oil lowers blood pressure in the elderly. J Hypertens. 1992;10(1):87-92. View abstract.
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Colangelo, L. A., He, K., Whooley, M. A., Daviglus, M. L., and Liu, K. Higher dietary intake of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids is inversely associated with depressive symptoms in women. Nutrition 2009;25(10):1011-1019. View abstract.
Conklin, S. M., Manuck, S. B., Yao, J. K., Flory, J. D., Hibbeln, J. R., and Muldoon, M. F. High omega-6 and low omega-3 fatty acids are associated with depressive symptoms and neuroticism. Psychosom.Med. 2007;69(9):932-934. View abstract.
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Contacos, C., Barter, P. J., and Sullivan, D. R. Effect of pravastatin and omega-3 fatty acids on plasma lipids and lipoproteins in patients with combined hyperlipidemia. Arterioscler.Thromb. 1993;13(12):1755-1762. View abstract.
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da Silva, T. M., Munhoz, R. P., Alvarez, C., Naliwaiko, K., Kiss, A., Andreatini, R., and Ferraz, A. C. Depression in Parkinson's disease: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study of omega-3 fatty-acid supplementation. J.Affect.Disord. 2008;111(2-3):351-359. View abstract.
Damsgaard, C. T., Lauritzen, L., Calder, P. C., Kjaer, T. R., and Frokiaer, H. Reduced ex vivo interleukin-6 production by dietary fish oil is not modified by linoleic acid intake in healthy men. J Nutr 2009;139(7):1410-1414. View abstract.
Davidson, M. H., Stein, E. A., Bays, H. E., Maki, K. C., Doyle, R. T., Shalwitz, R. A., Ballantyne, C. M., and Ginsberg, H. N. Efficacy and tolerability of adding prescription omega-3 fatty acids 4 g/d to simvastatin 40 mg/d in hypertriglyceridemic patients: an 8-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Clin Ther 2007;29(7):1354-1367. View abstract.
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De Caterina, R., Giannessi, D., Mazzone, A., Bernini, W., Lazzerini, G., Maffei, S., Cerri, M., Salvatore, L., and Weksler, B. Vascular prostacyclin is increased in patients ingesting omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids before coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Circulation 1990;82(2):428-438. View abstract.
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De Truchis, P., Kirstetter, M., Perier, A., Meunier, C., Zucman, D., Force, G., Doll, J., Katlama, C., Rozenbaum, W., Masson, H., Gardette, J., and Melchior, J. C. Reduction in triglyceride level with N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in HIV-infected patients taking potent antiretroviral therapy: a randomized prospective study. J.Acquir.Immune.Defic.Syndr. 3-1-2007;44(3):278-285. View abstract.
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Dehmer, G. J., Popma, J. J., van den Berg, E. K., Eichhorn, E. J., Prewitt, J. B., Campbell, W. B., Jennings, L., Willerson, J. T., and Schmitz, J. M. Reduction in the rate of early restenosis after coronary angioplasty by a diet supplemented with n-3 fatty acids. N.Engl.J Med 9-22-1988;319(12):733-740. View abstract.
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Deschner, E. E., Lytle, J. S., Wong, G., Ruperto, J. F., and Newmark, H. L. The effect of dietary omega-3 fatty acids (fish oil) on azoxymethanol- induced focal areas of dysplasia and colon tumor incidence. Cancer 12-1-1990;66(11):2350-2356. View abstract.
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Dodin, S., Cunnane, S. C., Masse, B., Lemay, A., Jacques, H., Asselin, G., Tremblay-Mercier, J., Marc, I., Lamarche, B., Legare, F., and Forest, J. C. Flaxseed on cardiovascular disease markers in healthy menopausal women: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Nutrition 2008;24(1):23-30. View abstract.
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Dunstan, D. W., Mori, T. A., Puddey, I. B., Beilin, L. J., Burke, V., Morton, A. R., and Stanton, K. G. The independent and combined effects of aerobic exercise and dietary fish intake on serum lipids and glycemic control in NIDDM. A randomized controlled study. Diabetes Care 1997;20(6):913-921. View abstract.
Durrington, P. N., Bhatnagar, D., Mackness, M. I., Morgan, J., Julier, K., Khan, M. A., and France, M. An omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrate administered for one year decreased triglycerides in simvastatin treated patients with coronary heart disease and persisting hypertriglyceridaemia. Heart 2001;85(5):544-548. View abstract.
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Egert, S., Somoza, V., Kannenberg, F., Fobker, M., Krome, K., Erbersdobler, H. F., and Wahrburg, U. Influence of three rapeseed oil-rich diets, fortified with alpha-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid or docosahexaenoic acid on the composition and oxidizability of low-density lipoproteins: results of a controlled study in healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Nutr 2007;61(3):314-325. View abstract.
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Endres, S., Ghorbani, R., Kelley, V. E., Georgilis, K., Lonnemann, G., van der Meer, J. W., Cannon, J. G., Rogers, T. S., Klempner, M. S., Weber, P. C., and . The effect of dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the synthesis of interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor by mononuclear cells. N.Engl.J Med 2-2-1989;320(5):265-271. View abstract.
Eritsland, J., Arnesen, H., Berg, K., Seljeflot, I., and Abdelnoor, M. Serum Lp(a) lipoprotein levels in patients with coronary artery disease and the influence of long-term n-3 fatty acid supplementation. Scand.J.Clin.Lab Invest 1995;55(4):295-300. View abstract.
Escobar, S. O., Achenbach, R., Iannantuono, R., and Torem, V. Topical fish oil in psoriasis--a controlled and blind study. Clin Exp Dermatol 1992;17(3):159-162. View abstract.
Faarvang, K. L., Nielsen, G. L., Thomsen, B. S., Teglbjaerg, K. L., Hansen, T. M., Lervang, H. H., Schmidt, E. B., Dyerberg, J., and Ernst, E. [Fish oils and rheumatoid arthritis. A randomized and double-blind study]. Ugeskr Laeger 6-6-1994;156(23):3495-3498. View abstract.
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Fleischhauer, F. J., Yan, W. D., and Fischell, T. A. Fish oil improves endothelium-dependent coronary vasodilation in heart transplant recipients. J Am Coll Cardiol 3-15-1993;21(4):982-989. View abstract.
Fortier, M., Tremblay-Mercier, J., Plourde, M., Chouinard-Watkins, R., Vandal, M., Pifferi, F., Freemantle, E., and Cunnane, S. C. Higher plasma n-3 fatty acid status in the moderately healthy elderly in southern Quebec: higher fish intake or aging-related change in n-3 fatty acid metabolism? Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 2010;82(4-6):277-280. View abstract.
Franke, C., Demmelmair, H., Decsi, T., Campoy, C., Cruz, M., Molina-Font, J. A., Mueller, K., and Koletzko, B. Influence of fish oil or folate supplementation on the time course of plasma redox markers during pregnancy. Br.J.Nutr. 2010;103(11):1648-1656. View abstract.
Franzen, D., Schannwell, M., Oette, K., and Hopp, H. W. A prospective, randomized, and double-blind trial on the effect of fish oil on the incidence of restenosis following PTCA. Cathet.Cardiovasc.Diagn. 1993;28(4):301-310. View abstract.
Freeman, M. P., Davis, M., Sinha, P., Wisner, K. L., Hibbeln, J. R., and Gelenberg, A. J. Omega-3 fatty acids and supportive psychotherapy for perinatal depression: a randomized placebo-controlled study. J.Affect.Disord. 2008;110(1-2):142-148. View abstract.
Freund-Levi, Y., Basun, H., Cederholm, T., Faxen-Irving, G., Garlind, A., Grut, M., Vedin, I., Palmblad, J., Wahlund, L. O., and Eriksdotter-Jonhagen, M. Omega-3 supplementation in mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: effects on neuropsychiatric symptoms. Int.J.Geriatr.Psychiatry 2008;23(2):161-169. View abstract.
Freund-Levi, Y., Hjorth, E., Lindberg, C., Cederholm, T., Faxen-Irving, G., Vedin, I., Palmblad, J., Wahlund, L. O., Schultzberg, M., Basun, H., and Eriksdotter, Jonhagen M. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on inflammatory markers in cerebrospinal fluid and plasma in Alzheimer's disease: the OmegAD study. Dement.Geriatr Cogn Disord 2009;27(5):481-490. View abstract.
Friday, K. E., Childs, M. T., Tsunehara, C. H., Fujimoto, W. Y., Bierman, E. L., and Ensinck, J. W. Elevated plasma glucose and lowered triglyceride levels from omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in type II diabetes. Diabetes Care 1989;12(4):276-281. View abstract.
Furuhjelm, C., Warstedt, K., Larsson, J., Fredriksson, M., Bottcher, M. F., Falth-Magnusson, K., and Duchen, K. Fish oil supplementation in pregnancy and lactation may decrease the risk of infant allergy. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98(9):1461-1467. View abstract.
Galarraga, B., Ho, M., Youssef, H. M., Hill, A., McMahon, H., Hall, C., Ogston, S., Nuki, G., and Belch, J. J. Cod liver oil (n-3 fatty acids) as an non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug sparing agent in rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology.(Oxford) 2008;47(5):665-669. View abstract.
Gallai, V., Sarchielli, P., Trequattrini, A., Franceschini, M., Floridi, A., Firenze, C., Alberti, A., Di Benedetto, D., and Stragliotto, E. Cytokine secretion and eicosanoid production in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of MS patients undergoing dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Neuroimmunol 1995;56:143-153.
Gapinski, J. P., VanRuiswyk, J. V., Heudebert, G. R., and Schectman, G. S. Preventing restenosis with fish oils following coronary angioplasty. A meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 7-12-1993;153(13):1595-1601. View abstract.
Garbagnati, F., Cairella, G., De, Martino A., Multari, M., Scognamiglio, U., Venturiero, V., and Paolucci, S. Is antioxidant and n-3 supplementation able to improve functional status in poststroke patients? Results from the Nutristroke Trial. Cerebrovasc.Dis. 2009;27(4):375-383. View abstract.
Gerber, J. G., Kitch, D. W., Fichtenbaum, C. J., Zackin, R. A., Charles, S., Hogg, E., Acosta, E. P., Connick, E., Wohl, D., Kojic, E. M., Benson, C. A., and Aberg, J. A. Fish oil and fenofibrate for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia in HIV-infected subjects on antiretroviral therapy: results of ACTG A5186. J.Acquir.Immune.Defic.Syndr. 4-1-2008;47(4):459-466. View abstract.
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Gonzalez, M. J., Schemmel, R. A., Dugan, L., Jr., Gray, J. I., and Welsch, C. W. Dietary fish oil inhibits human breast carcinoma growth: a function of increased lipid peroxidation. Lipids 1993;28(9):827-832. View abstract.
Gorjao, R., Verlengia, R., Lima, T. M., Soriano, F. G., Boaventura, M. F., Kanunfre, C. C., Peres, C. M., Sampaio, S. C., Otton, R., Folador, A., Martins, E. F., Curi, T. C., Portiolli, E. P., Newsholme, P., and Curi, R. Effect of docosahexaenoic acid-rich fish oil supplementation on human leukocyte function. Clin Nutr 2006;25(6):923-938. View abstract.
Gray, D. R., Gozzip, C. G., Eastham, J. H., and Kashyap, M. L. Fish oil as an adjuvant in the treatment of hypertension. Pharmacotherapy 1996;16(2):295-300. View abstract.
Green, P., Fuchs, J., Schoenfeld, N., Leibovici, L., Lurie, Y., Beigel, Y., Rotenberg, Z., Mamet, R., and Budowski, P. Effects of fish-oil ingestion on cardiovascular risk factors in hyperlipidemic subjects in Israel: a randomized, double-blind crossover study. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;52(6):1118-1124. View abstract.
Grigg, L. E., Kay, T. W., Valentine, P. A., Larkins, R., Flower, D. J., Manolas, E. G., O'Dea, K., Sinclair, A. J., Hopper, J. L., and Hunt, D. Determinants of restenosis and lack of effect of dietary supplementation with eicosapentaenoic acid on the incidence of coronary artery restenosis after angioplasty. J Am Coll Cardiol. 3-1-1989;13(3):665-672. View abstract.
Grimminger, F., Grimm, H., Fuhrer, D., Papavassilis, C., Lindemann, G., Blecher, C., Mayer, K., Tabesch, F., Kramer, H. J., Stevens, J., and Seeger, W. Omega-3 lipid infusion in a heart allotransplant model. Shift in fatty acid and lipid mediator profiles and prolongation of transplant survival. Circulation 1-15-1996;93(2):365-371. View abstract.
Gruenwald, J., Petzold, E., Busch, R., Petzold, H. P., and Graubaum, H. J. Effect of glucosamine sulfate with or without omega-3 fatty acids in patients with osteoarthritis. Adv.Ther 2009;26(9):858-871. View abstract.
Gunnarsdottir, I., Tomasson, H., Kiely, M., Martinez, J. A., Bandarra, N. M., Morais, M. G., and Thorsdottir, I. Inclusion of fish or fish oil in weight-loss diets for young adults: effects on blood lipids. Int.J.Obes.(Lond) 2008;32(7):1105-1112. View abstract.
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Gupta, A. K., Ellis, C. N., Tellner, D. C., Anderson, T. F., and Voorhees, J. J. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study to evaluate the efficacy of fish oil and low-dose UVB in the treatment of psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 1989;120(6):801-807. View abstract.
Haglund, O., Luostarinen, R., Wallin, R., Wibell, L., and Saldeen, T. The effects of fish oil on triglycerides, cholesterol, fibrinogen and malondialdehyde in humans supplemented with vitamin E. J Nutr 1991;121(2):165-169. View abstract.
Hamazaki, K., Itomura, M., Huan, M., Nishizawa, H., Sawazaki, S., Tanouchi, M., Watanabe, S., Hamazaki, T., Terasawa, K., and Yazawa, K. Effect of omega-3 fatty acid-containing phospholipids on blood catecholamine concentrations in healthy volunteers: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Nutrition 2005;21(6):705-710. View abstract.
Hansen, J. B., Olsen, J. O., Wilsgard, L., Lyngmo, V., and Svensson, B. Comparative effects of prolonged intake of highly purified fish oils as ethyl ester or triglyceride on lipids, haemostasis and platelet function in normolipaemic men. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1993;47(7):497-507. View abstract.
Hanwell, H. E., Kay, C. D., Lampe, J. W., Holub, B. J., and Duncan, A. M. Acute fish oil and soy isoflavone supplementation increase postprandial serum (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids and isoflavones but do not affect triacylglycerols or biomarkers of oxidative stress in overweight and obese hypertriglyceridemic men. J Nutr 2009;139(6):1128-1134. View abstract.
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Harper, M., Thom, E., Klebanoff, M. A., Thorp, J., Jr., Sorokin, Y., Varner, M. W., Wapner, R. J., Caritis, S. N., Iams, J. D., Carpenter, M. W., Peaceman, A. M., Mercer, B. M., Sciscione, A., Rouse, D. J., Ramin, S. M., and Anderson, G. D. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation to prevent recurrent preterm birth: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2010;115(2 Pt 1):234-242. View abstract.
Harris, W. S. Fish oils and plasma lipid and lipoprotein metabolism in humans: a critical review. J Lipid Res 1989;30(6):785-807. View abstract.
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Harris, W. S., Gonzales, M., Laney, N., Sastre, A., and Borkon, A. M. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on heart rate in cardiac transplant recipients. Am J Cardiol 11-15-2006;98(10):1393-1395. View abstract.
Harris, W. S., Pottala, J. V., Sands, S. A., and Jones, P. G. Comparison of the effects of fish and fish-oil capsules on the n 3 fatty acid content of blood cells and plasma phospholipids. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 2007;86(6):1621-1625. View abstract.
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Harrison, R. A., Sagara, M., Rajpura, A., Armitage, L., Birt, N., Birt, C. A., and Yamori, Y. Can foods with added soya-protein or fish-oil reduce risk factors for coronary disease? A factorial randomised controlled trial. Nutr.Metab Cardiovasc.Dis. 2004;14(6):344-350. View abstract.
Hartweg, J., Perera, R., Montori, V., Dinneen, S., Neil, H. A., and Farmer, A. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008;(1):CD003205. View abstract.
Hawthorne, K. M., Abrams, S. A., and Heird, W. C. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation of orange juice increases plasma phospholipid DHA content of children. J Am Diet Assoc 2009;109(4):708-712. View abstract.
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Henderson, W. R., Jr., Astley, S. J., and Ramsey, B. W. Liver function in patients with cystic fibrosis ingesting fish oil. J Pediatr 1994;125(3):504-505. View abstract.
Henderson, W. R., Jr., Astley, S. J., McCready, M. M., Kushmerick, P., Casey, S., Becker, J. W., and Ramsey, B. W. Oral absorption of omega-3 fatty acids in patients with cystic fibrosis who have pancreatic insufficiency and in healthy control subjects. J Pediatr 1994;124(3):400-408. View abstract.
Hogg, R. J., Fitzgibbons, L., Atkins, C., Nardelli, N., and Bay, R. C. Efficacy of omega-3 fatty acids in children and adults with IgA nephropathy is dosage- and size-dependent. Clin.J.Am.Soc.Nephrol. 2006;1(6):1167-1172. View abstract.
Homan van der Heide JJ, Bilo, H. J., Donker, A. J., Wilmink, J. M., Sluiter, W. J., and Tegzess, A. M. The effects of dietary supplementation with fish oil on renal function and the course of early postoperative rejection episodes in cyclosporine-treated renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 1992;54(2):257-263. View abstract.
Homan van der Heide JJ, Bilo, H. J., Tegzess, A. M., and Donker, A. J. The effects of dietary supplementation with fish oil on renal function in cyclosporine-treated renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 1990;49(3):523-527. View abstract.
Hong, H., Xu, Z. M., Pang, B. S., Cui, L., Wei, Y., Guo, W. J., Mao, Y. L., and Yang, X. C. Effects of simvastatin combined with omega-3 fatty acids on high sensitive C-reactive protein, lipidemia, and fibrinolysis in patients with mixed dyslipidemia. Chin Med Sci.J 2004;19(2):145-149. View abstract.
Hooper, L., Thompson, R. L., Harrison, R. A., Summerbell, C. D., Ness, A. R., Moore, H. J., Worthington, H. V., Durrington, P. N., Higgins, J. P., Capps, N. E., Riemersma, R. A., Ebrahim, S. B., and Davey, Smith G. Risks and benefits of omega 3 fats for mortality, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: systematic review. BMJ 4-1-2006;332(7544):752-760. View abstract.
Howe, P. R., Lungershausen, Y. K., Cobiac, L., Dandy, G., and Nestel, P. J. Effect of sodium restriction and fish oil supplementation on BP and thrombotic risk factors in patients treated with ACE inhibitors. J Hum Hypertens. 1994;8(1):43-49. View abstract.
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Jacquet, A., Girodet, P. O., Pariente, A., Forest, K., Mallet, L., and Moore, N. Phytalgic, a food supplement, vs placebo in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee or hip: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. Arthritis Res.Ther. 2009;11(6):R192. View abstract.
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Jeng, K. C. and Fernandes, G. Effect of fish oil diet on immune response and proteinuria in mice. Proc Natl Sci Counc.Repub.China B 1991;15(2):105-110.
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Johansen, O., Brekke, M., Seljeflot, I., Abdelnoor, M., and Arnesen, H. N-3 fatty acids do not prevent restenosis after coronary angioplasty: results from the CART study. Coronary Angioplasty Restenosis Trial. J Am.Coll.Cardiol. 1999;33(6):1619-1626. View abstract.
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Kamphuis, M. H., Geerlings, M. I., Tijhuis, M. A., Kalmijn, S., Grobbee, D. E., and Kromhout, D. Depression and cardiovascular mortality: a role for n-3 fatty acids? Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 2006;84(6):1513-1517. View abstract.
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Katz, D. P., Manner, T., Furst, P., and Askanazi, J. The use of an intravenous fish oil emulsion enriched with omega-3 fatty acids in patients with cystic fibrosis. Nutrition 1996;12(5):334-339. View abstract.
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Robinson, D. R., Prickett, J. D., Makoul, G. T., Steinberg, A. D., and Colvin, R. B. Dietary fish oil reduces progression of established renal disease in (NZB x NZW)F1 mice and delays renal disease in BXSB and MRL/1 strains. Arthritis Rheum 1986;29(4):539-546. View abstract.
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Roman, A. S., Schreher, J., Mackenzie, A. P., and Nathanielsz, P. W. Omega-3 fatty acids and decidual cell prostaglandin production in response to the inflammatory cytokine IL-1beta. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006;195(6):1693-1699. View abstract.
Romieu, I., Garcia-Esteban, R., Sunyer, J., Rios, C., Alcaraz-Zubeldia, M., Velasco, S. R., and Holguin, F. The effect of supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on markers of oxidative stress in elderly exposed to PM(2.5). Environ Health Perspect. 2008;116(9):1237-1242. View abstract.
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