FISH OIL

OTHER NAME(S):

Aceite de Pescado, Acides Gras Oméga-3, Acides Gras Oméga 3, Acides Gras Oméga 3 Sous Forme Ester Éthylique, Acides Gras N-3, Acides Gras Polyinsaturés N-3, Acides Gras W3, ACPI, EPA/DHA Ethyl Ester, Ester Éthylique de l'AEP/ADH, Fish Body Oil, Herring Oil, Huile de Foie de Morue, Huile de Hareng, Huile de Menhaden, Huile de Poisson, Huile de Saumon, Huile de Thon, Huile Lipidique Marine, Huile Marine, Huiles Marines, Lipides Marins, Marine Lipid Concentrate, Marine Fish Oil, Marine Lipid Oil, Marine Lipids, Marine Oil, Marine Oils, Marine Triglyceride, Menhaden Oil, N-3 Fatty Acids, N3-polyunsaturated Fatty Acids, Omega 3, Oméga 3, Omega-3, Oméga-3, Omega-3 Fatty Acid Ethyl Ester, Omega-3 Fatty Acids, Omega 3 Fatty Acids, Omega-3 Marine Triglycerides, PUFA, Salmon Oil, Triglycérides Marins, Tuna Fish Oil, Tuna Oil, W-3 Fatty Acids.<br/><br/>

Overview

Overview Information

Fish oil can be obtained by eating fish or taking supplements. Fish that are especially rich in the beneficial oils known as omega-3 fatty acids include mackerel, herring, tuna, salmon, cod liver, whale blubber, and seal blubber. Two of the most important omega-3 fatty acids contained in fish oil are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).

Certain fish oil is used as a prescription medicine to lower triglycerides levels.

Fish oil is most often used in supplements for conditions related to the heart and blood system. Fish oil is also used for many kidney-related problems. Fish may have earned its reputation as "brain food" because some people eat fish to help with various conditions linked with nerve and brain function. Some people use fish oil for eye conditions that can lead to blindness. Fish oil supplements have also been tried for many other conditions.

Do not confuse fish oil with EPA, DHA, cod liver oil, or shark liver oil. See the separate listings for EPA, DHA, cod liver oil, or shark liver oil.

How does it work?

A lot of the benefit of fish oil seems to come from the omega-3 fatty acids that it contains. Interestingly, the body does not produce its own omega-3 fatty acids. Nor can the body make omega-3 fatty acids from omega-6 fatty acids, which are common in the Western diet. A lot of research has been done on EPA and DHA, two types of omega-3 acids that are often included in fish oil supplements.

Omega-3 fatty acids reduce pain and swelling. This may explain why fish oil is likely effective for psoriasis and dry eyes. These fatty acids also prevent the blood from clotting easily. This might explain why fish oil is helpful for some heart conditions.

Uses

Uses & Effectiveness?

Effective for

  • High levels of fats called triglycerides in the blood (hypertriglyceridemia). Most research shows that fish oil can reduce triglyceride levels by 20% to 50%. The effects of fish oil are greater in people with higher triglyceride levels. Also, taking larger amounts of fish oil result reduce triglyceride levels by a greater amount. But fish oil seems to have a smaller effect compared to drugs called fibrates. Certain fish oil preparations, including Lovaza, Omtryg, and Epanova, are approved as prescription drugs for treating very high triglyceride levels. These products are most often taken at a dose of 4 grams daily. This provides about 3.5 grams of omega-3 fatty acids per day. While some non-prescription fish oil supplements have also shown benefit in research, some experts discourage people from using these products. Often these products contain less omega-3 fatty acids than the prescription fish oil products. As a result, people would need to take as many as 12 capsules per day of fish oil supplements to get the same effect as prescription fish oil. Fish oil supplements don't seem to lower triglycerides in children and teens with high triglyceride levels. But these studies were small, so larger higher quality studies are needed to confirm.

Possibly Effective for

  • A procedure to open a blocked or narrowed blood vessel (angioplasty). Research suggests that fish oil decreases the rate of blood vessel re-blockage by up to 45% when given for at least 3 weeks before an angioplasty and continued for one month thereafter. But, when given for 2 weeks or less before angioplasty, it doesn't seem to have any effect.
  • Miscarriage in pregnant women with an autoimmune disorder called antiphospholipid syndrome. Taking fish oil by mouth seems to prevent miscarriages and increase live birth rates in pregnant women with antiphospholipid syndrome.
  • Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children. Early research shows that taking fish oil improves attention, mental function, and behavior in children 8-13 years-old with ADHD. Other research shows that taking a specific supplement containing fish oil and evening primrose oil (Eye Q, Novasel) improves mental function and behavior in children 7-12 years-old with ADHD.
  • Bipolar disorder. Taking fish oil along with conventional treatments for bipolar disorder seems to improve symptoms of depression but not mania in people with bipolar disorder.
  • Involuntary weight loss in people who are very ill (cachexia or wasting syndrome). Taking a high dose of fish oil seems to slow weight loss in some cancer patients. Low doses of fish oil don't seem to have this effect. Some researchers believe fish oil slows cancer-related weight loss by fighting depression and improving the mood of people with cancer.
  • Surgery to improve blood flow to the heart (CABG surgery). Taking fish oil seems to prevent coronary artery bypass grafts from re-closing following CABG surgery.
  • High blood pressure caused by the drug cyclosporine. Cyclosporine is a medication that reduces the chance of organ rejection after an organ transplant. Taking fish oil seems to prevent high blood pressure caused by this drug.
  • Kidney damage caused by the drug cyclosporine. Cyclosporine is a medication that reduces the chance of organ rejection after an organ transplant. Taking fish oil seems to prevent kidney damage in people taking this drug. Fish oil also seems to improve kidney function during the recovery phase following the rejection of a transplanted organ in people taking cyclosporine.
  • A motor skill disorder marked by clumsiness (developmental coordination disorder or DCD). A combination of fish oil (80%) and evening primrose oil (20%) seems to improve reading, spelling, and behavior when given to children age 5-12 years with DCD. It is unclear if taking supplements with fish oil can improve motor skills in children with this condition. Results from clinical research are conflicting.
  • Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea). Research shows that taking fish oil, alone or with vitamin B12 or vitamin E, can improve painful periods and reduce the need for pain medications in women with menstrual cramps.
  • Cancer of the lining of the uterus (endometrial cancer). There is some evidence that women who regularly eat about two servings of fatty fish weekly have a reduced risk of developing endometrial cancer.
  • Heart failure. Higher intake of fish oil from foods has been linked with a reduced risk of heart failure. Eating 1-2 servings of non-fried fish per week is recommended. It's too soon to know if taking fish oil supplements helps prevent heart failure. But early research shows that fish oil supplements might reduce adverse outcomes such as hospital admissions or death in people that already have heart failure.
  • Complications after a heart transplant. Taking fish oil seems to preserve kidney function and reduce the long-term rise in blood pressure after heart transplantation.
  • Abnormal levels of blood fats in people with HIV/AIDS. Some research suggests that taking fish oil reduces triglyceride levels in people with abnormal cholesterol levels caused by HIV/AIDS treatment. Taking fish oil might also reduce total cholesterol levels in these people, although results are inconsistent.
  • High blood pressure. Fish oil seems to slightly lower blood pressure in people with moderate to very high blood pressure. Some types of fish oil might also reduce blood pressure in people with slightly high blood pressure, but results are inconsistent. Fish oil seems to add to the effects of some, but not all, blood pressure-lowering medications. However, it doesn't seem to reduce blood pressure in people with uncontrolled blood pressure who are already taking blood pressure-lowering medications.
  • A condition that slowly leads to kidney disease (IgA nephropathy). Some research shows that long-term but not short-term use of fish oil can slow the loss of kidney function in high-risk patients with IgA nephropathy. Fish oil might have greater effects when taken at higher doses. Also, it might be most effective in people with IgA nephropathy who have higher levels of protein in the urine.
  • Weak and brittle bones (osteoporosis). Research suggests that taking fish oil alone or together with calcium and evening primrose oil slows the rate of bone loss and increases bone density at the thigh bone (femur) and spine in elderly people with osteoporosis. But taking fish oil does not slow bone loss in older people with osteoarthritis in the knee but without weak bones.
  • Scaly, itchy skin (psoriasis). There is some evidence that administering fish oil intravenously (by IV) can decrease the severity of psoriasis symptoms. Also, applying fish oil to the skin also seems to improve some symptoms of psoriasis. But taking fish oil by mouth does not seem to have any effect on psoriasis.
  • A mental disorder marked by hallucinations and delusion (psychosis). Some research shows that taking a fish oil supplement might help prevent full psychotic illness from developing in teenagers and young adults with mild symptoms. These effects of fish oil have not been tested in older people.
  • Raynaud syndrome. There is some evidence that taking fish oil can improve cold tolerance in some people with the usual form of Raynaud syndrome. However, people with Raynaud syndrome caused by a condition called progressive systemic sclerosis do not seem to benefit from fish oil supplements.
  • Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Taking fish oil by mouth, alone or together with the drug naproxen (Naprosyn), seems to help improve symptoms of RA. People who take fish oil can sometimes reduce their use of pain medications. Also, administering fish oil intravenously (by IV) reduces swollen and tender joints in people with RA.

Possibly Ineffective for

  • Chest pain (angina). Research suggests that taking fish oil supplements does not reduce the risk of death or improve heart health in people with chest pain. Some evidence even suggests that fish oil supplements might actually increase the risk of heart-related death in people with chest pain.
  • Hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis). Some research shows that taking fish oil supplements might slightly reduce the progression of atherosclerosis. But most research shows that fish oil doesn't slow the progression or improve symptoms of atherosclerosis.
  • Eczema (atopic dermatitis). Research shows that fish oil does not improve eczema. Most research also shows that taking fish oil during pregnancy doesn't PREVENT eczema in the child. Giving fish oil to an infant also doesn't seem to prevent eczema in children. But children who eat fish at least once weekly from the age of 1-2 years seem to have a lower risk of developing eczema.
  • Irregular heartbeat (atrial fibrillation). Some research suggests that people who eat fish five or more times weekly have a reduced risk of irregular heartbeat. But most research suggests that eating fatty fish or taking fish oil supplements does not reduce the risk of irregular heartbeat.
  • Long-term blood flow problems in the brain (cerebrovascular diseases). Some early research suggests that eating fish reduces the risk of cerebrovascular disease. But higher quality research suggests that taking fish oil does not have this effect.
  • Liver scarring (cirrhosis). Taking fish oil by mouth does not seem to improve kidney problems associated with liver scarring caused by advanced liver disease.
  • Memory and thinking skills (cognitive function). Most research shows that taking fish oil supplements does not improve mental function in older people, young adults, or children.
  • A mild form of gum disease (gingivitis). Taking fish oil does not seem to improve gingivitis.
  • A digestive tract infection that can lead to ulcers (Helicobacter pylori or H. pylori). Taking fish oil by mouth does not seem to improve H. pylori infections when compared to standard medications.
  • HIV/AIDS. Some evidence shows that eating food bars containing fish oil does not increase CD4 cell counts in people with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Also, taken formula containing fish oil doesn't seem to reduce the amount of HIV in the blood.
  • Kidney transplant. Research shows that taking fish oil doesn't help people live longer after a kidney transplant. It also doesn't seem to prevent the body from rejecting the transplant.
  • Breast pain (mastalgia). Taking fish oil does not appear to reduce long-term breast pain.
  • Symptoms of menopause. Research shows that fish oil does not hot flashes, insomnia, or quality of life in women with symptoms of symptoms. However fish oil supplements might reduce night sweats in these women.
  • Migraine. Taking fish oil by mouth does not appear to decrease the number or severity of migraines.
  • Osteoarthritis. People with osteoarthritis who take low doses of fish oil seem to have less pain and better function compared to those taking high doses of fish oil. This result is somewhat unexpected and might be due to a "placebo effect." Adding fish oil to glucosamine doesn't further reduce pain or stiffness compared to taking glucosamine alone.
  • Narrowing of blood vessels that causes poor blood flow to the limbs (peripheral arterial disease). Taking fish oil by mouth does not appear to improve walking distance in people with leg pain due to blow flow problems.
  • Pneumonia. Population research shows no relationship between fish consumption and the risk of developing pneumonia.
  • High blood pressure during pregnancy. Fish oil does not seem to prevent high blood pressure during pregnancy.
  • A pregnancy complication marked by high blood pressure and protein in the urine (pre-eclampsia). Fish oil does not seem to prevent pre-eclampsia.
  • Abnormal rapid heart rhythms (ventricular arrhythmias). Population research suggests that eating a lot of fish has no effect on the risk for abnormal rapid heart rhythms. Clinical research is inconsistent. Some research shows that taking fish oil daily does not affect the risk for abnormal heart rhythms. But other research shows that taking fish oil for 11 months delays the development of the condition. However, overall, taking fish oil does not seem to reduce the risk of death in people with abnormal rapid heart rhythms.

Likely InEffective for

  • Diabetes. Taking fish oil does not lower blood sugar in people with type 2 diabetes. However, fish oil can provide some other benefits for people with diabetes, such as lowering blood fats called triglycerides. Additionally, fish oil does not reduce the risk of getting diabetes in pregnancy.

Insufficient Evidence for

  • An eye disease that leads to vision loss in older adults (age-related macular degeneration or AMD). There is some evidence that people who eat fish more than once weekly have a reduced risk of developing age-related vision loss. But, clinical research shows that taking fish oil by mouth for up to 5 years does not prevent vision loss.
  • Hay fever. Early research suggests that mothers who take fish oil supplements during the late stages of pregnancy may lower the occurrence of allergies in their children. But other research suggests that fish oil does not reduce the development of allergies in children when taken by the mother during pregnancy.
  • Alzheimer disease. There is some early evidence that fish oil might help prevent Alzheimer disease. However, it does not seem to help prevent a decline in thinking skills for most people who have already been diagnosed with Alzheimer disease.
  • Asthma. Some research suggests that fish oil supplements might help TREAT some asthma symptoms. But results aren't consistent. Some research shows that taking fish oil improves breathing and reduces the need for medication. Other research shows that fish oil does not reduce the severity of asthma is children. Fish oil might help PREVENT asthma in young children when taken by the mother while pregnant. But fish oil does not seem to provide any benefits when taken by the mother while breastfeeding or by the infant. Overall, research suggests that fish oil does not help TREAT eczema once it has developed.
  • Athletic performance. Some evidence suggests that taking fish oil can improve lung function in athletes. But other evidence suggests that taking fish oil does not improve endurance, recovery, heart rate, or exercise duration.
  • Autism. One small study shows that taking fish oil might reduce hyperactivity in children with autism. But this study had flaws. Other research shows that taking fish oil doesn't reduce hyperactivity.
  • Cancer. Research on the effects of fish oil in preventing cancer has produced conflicting results. Some research linked eating fish or having higher blood levels of omega-3 fatty acids is a lower risk of different cancers. But other research suggests that eating fish does not reduce the risk of cancer.
  • Heart disease. Most research shows that taking fish oil supplements doesn't prevent heart disease or reduce the chance of heart-related events in people with heart disease. Getting fish oil from the diet might be beneficial. But benefits are probably modest at best. People should still eat fish and other foods that provide fish oil, though. These foods make up part of a healthy diet.
  • Cataracts. There is some early evidence that eating fish three times weekly can slightly lower the risk of developing cataracts.
  • Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). There is some conflicting evidence about the use of a specific product (Efamol Marine) that combines fish oil and evening primrose oil to reduce the symptoms CFS.
  • Decline in memory and thinking skills in older people that is more than what is normal for their age. Some research suggests that taking fish oil by mouth daily for 12 months might improve memory in people with reduced mental function.
  • Colon cancer, rectal cancer. Some early research suggests that taking fish oil during chemotherapy might slow the progression of tumors in people with colorectal cancer.
  • A type of inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn disease). Research into the effects of fish oil on Crohn disease has produced conflicting results. Some research shows that taking a specific fish oil product can reduce the relapse of Crohn disease for people who have recovered. However, other research shows that fish oil does not have this effect.
  • Cystic fibrosis. Early research suggests that taking fish oil by mouth can improve lung function in people with cystic fibrosis. However, administering fish oil intravenously (IV) does not have this effect.
  • Diseases, such as Alzheimer disease, that interfere with thinking (dementia). Some early research suggests that eating fish at least once per week reduces the risk of developing dementia. Other research suggests there is no link between fish consumption and the risk of dementia.
  • Depression. People who eat more fish seem to have a lower risk of depression. But it is unclear if taking fish oil supplements reduces symptoms of depression. Results from research are conflicting. Reasons for the discrepancies may relate to the dose of fish oil, the ratio of omega-3 fatty acids in the fish oil supplement, and the severity of depression before treatment.
  • Kidney damage in people with diabetes (diabetic nephropathy). Evidence suggests that taking fish oil does not improve kidney function in people with diabetic nephropathy.
  • Vision problems in people with diabetes (diabetic retinopathy). Higher intake of fish oil from the diet has been linked to a reduced risk of eye damage in people with diabetes.
  • Dry eye. Higher intake of fish oil from the diet has been linked to a lower risk of dry eye in women. But the effects of fish oil in people with dry eye are inconsistent. Some research shows that fish oil reduces dry eye symptoms such as pain, blurred vision, and sensitivity. But fish oil doesn't seem to improve other signs and symptoms of dry eye such as tear production and damage to the surface of the eye. Taking fish oil also doesn't improve signs and symptoms of dry eye when used with other dry eye treatments.
  • A learning disorder marked by difficulty reading (dyslexia). Taking fish oil by mouth seems to improve night vision in children with dyslexia.
  • Abnormal levels of cholesterol or blood fats (dyslipidemia). There is conflicting data about the effects of fish oil on blood fats in people with abnormal blood fat levels. Research shows that eating two servings of fish per week can lower cholesterol and blood fats in people with high cholesterol. Taking fish oil supplements also seems to improve levels of triglycerides and certain other blood fats in people with diabetes and in people with kidney transplants. But most research shows that taking fish oil supplements does not improve cholesterol levels in people with abnormal or high cholesterol levels. In fact, taking fish oil supplements might actually increase low-density lipoprotein (LDL or "bad") cholesterol levels in these people.
  • Serious kidney disease (end-stage renal disease or ESRD). Some evidence suggests that taking fish oil reduces markers of swelling (inflammation) in people with serious kidney disease.
  • Seizure disorder (epilepsy). Research suggests that taking omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil by mouth daily for 10 weeks reduces seizures in people with epilepsy that is resistant to drugs.
  • Muscle soreness caused by exercise. Taking fish oil might lessen exercise-induced muscle soreness in professional athletes. But these early results need to be confirmed in larger, high quality studies. It's unclear if fish oil reduces exercise-induced muscle soreness in untrained adults. Results from early research are conflicting.
  • Food allergies. Taking fish oil during pregnancy seems to reduce the risk of egg allergies in the infant. But it doesn't reduce the risk of other food allergies such as milk or peanut allergies in the infant.
  • Preventing blockage of grafts used in kidney dialysis. Taking fish oil seems to help prevent blood clot formation in hemodialysis grafts. It might also help the grafts work longer. But more research is needed to know which dose of fish oil is best.
  • Prediabetes. Taking fish oil does not seem to improve blood sugar in people with prediabetes. But it might help prevent prediabetes from advancing to type 2 diabetes.
  • Infant development. The strongest research shows that taking fish oil supplements during pregnancy or breastfeeding does not improve mental development of the infant. Feeding infants formula with fish oil appears to improve the infant's vision but not mental development.
  • Multiple sclerosis (MS). Taking a specific fish oil product does not appear to improve the duration, frequency, or severity of relapses in patients with multiple sclerosis.
  • Build up of fat in the liver in people who drink little or no alcohol (nonalcoholic fatty liver disease or NAFLD). Limited research shows that fish oil might be beneficial for NAFLD in adults and children.
  • Obesity. Most research shows that taking fish oil does not improve weight loss in obese adults or in children. But eating fish as part of a reduced-calorie diet seems to help.
  • Swelling (inflammation) and sores inside the mouth (oral mucositis). Taking fish oil seems to reduce the severity and pain of sores in the mouth from cancer drugs.
  • Swelling (inflammation) of the pancreas (pancreatitis). Evidence suggests that feeding intravenously (IV) with nutrition that has been fortified with fish oil reduces the number of days of kidney replacement therapy needed by people with severe inflammation of the pancreas.
  • An inherited disorder that increases levels of phenylalanine in the blood (phenylketonuria or PKU). Some evidence suggests that taking fish oil supplements improves motor skills, coordination, and vision in children with a rare genetic disorder called phenylketonuria.
  • A type of anxiety that often develops after a terrifying event (post-traumatic stress disorder or PTSD). Some early research shows that adding supplements containing omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil to psychoeducation does not provide any further benefits to people with PTSD.
  • Preterm labor. Taking fish oil or eating seafood during pregnancy might help prevent premature delivery. But conflicting results exist.
  • Growth and development in premature infants. Baby formula that has been fortified with fatty acids from fish oil and borage oil seems to improve growth and nervous system development in premature infants, especially boys.
  • Bed sores (pressure ulcers). Early research suggests that supplementing either a feeding tube or IV with fish oil for 28 days might slow the progression of pressure ulcers.
  • Infection of the airways. Drinking a beverage containing fish oil, vitamin D, and protein does not seem to reduce upper airway infection in athletes.
  • Inability of the body to properly break down drugs called salicylates (salicylate intolerance). Some early research suggests that taking fish oil might improve symptoms of salicylate intolerance, such as asthma attacks and itching.
  • Age-related muscle loss (sarcopenia). The effects of fish oil on muscle in elderly people are not clear. Some research shows that taking fish oil along with strength training increases muscle gain better than strength training alone. But other research shows no benefit.
  • Schizophrenia. Fish oil might improve symptoms such as aggression in people with schizophrenia. But not all research agrees.
  • Blood infection (sepsis). Giving fish oil as part of a nutrition plan to patients with sepsis might reduce the need for mechanical breathing and shorten the stay in the intensive care unit of the hospital. But giving fish oil does not improve survival or reduce the risk of brain injury or delirium in people with sepsis.
  • Sickle cell disease. Early research suggests that taking fish oil can reduce severe pain episodes in people with sickle cell disease.
  • Stroke. Taking fish oil as a supplement doesn't seem to prevent stroke. The effect that eating fish oil in the diet has on stroke risk is controversial. Eating fish once or twice weekly seems to lower the risk of having a stroke by as much as 27%. But eating very high amounts of fish (more than 46 grams of fish per day) seems to increase stroke risk. And eating fish does not lower stroke risk in people who are already taking aspirin for prevention.
  • An autoimmune disease that causes widespread swelling (systemic lupus erythematosus or SLE). Some early studies suggest that fish oil helps improve symptoms of SLE, while other studies show no effect.
  • A type of inflammatory bowel disease (ulcerative colitis). Research studies into the effects of fish oil for treating ulcerative colitis show conflicting results.
  • Glaucoma.
  • Other conditions.
    • More evidence is needed to rate fish oil for these uses.

Side Effects

Side Effects & Safety

When taken by mouth: Fish oil is LIKELY SAFE for most people when taken by mouth in low doses (3 grams or less per day). There are some safety concerns when fish oil is taken in high doses. Taking more than 3 grams per day might keep blood from clotting and can increase the chance of bleeding.

High doses of fish oil might also reduce the immune system's activity, reducing the body's ability to fight infection. This is a special concern for people taking medications to reduce their immune system's activity (organ transplant patients, for example) and the elderly.

Only take high doses of fish oil while under medical supervision.

Fish oil can cause side effects including belching, bad breath, heartburn, nausea, loose stools, rash, and nosebleeds. Taking fish oil supplements with meals or freezing them can often decrease these side effects. Consuming large amounts of fish oil from some DIETARY sources is POSSIBLY UNSAFE. Some fish meats (especially shark, king mackerel, and farm-raised salmon) can be contaminated with mercury and other industrial and environmental chemicals. Fish oil supplements typically do not contain these contaminants.

When given by IV: Fish oil is POSSIBLY SAFE when injected intravenously (by IV) in the short-term. Fish oil or omega-3 fatty acid solutions have been safely used for 1 to 4 weeks.

Special Precautions & Warnings:

Children: Fish oil is POSSIBLY SAFE when taken by mouth appropriately. Fish oil has been used safely through feeding tubes in infants for up to 9 months. But young children should not eat more than two ounces of fish per week. Fish oil is also POSSIBLY SAFE when given in the vein by a health care professional to infants who cannot take food by mouth. Fish oil is POSSIBLY UNSAFE when consumed from dietary sources in large amounts. Fatty fish contain toxins such as mercury. Eating contaminated fish frequently can cause brain damage, mental retardation, blindness and seizures in children.

Pregnancy and breast-feeding: Fish oil is LIKELY SAFE when taken by mouth appropriately. Taking fish oil during pregnancy does not seem to affect the fetus or baby while breast-feeding. Women who are pregnant or who may become pregnant, and nursing mothers should avoid shark, swordfish, king mackerel, and tilefish (also called golden bass or golden snapper), as these may contain high levels of mercury. Limit consumption of other fish to 12 ounces/week (about 3 to 4 servings/week). Fish oil is POSSIBLY UNSAFE when dietary sources are consumed in large amounts. Fatty fish contain toxins such as mercury.

Bipolar disorder: Taking fish oil might increase some of the symptoms of this condition.

Liver disease: Fish oil might increase the risk of bleeding in people with liver scarring due to liver disease.

Depression: Taking fish oil might increase some of the symptoms of this condition.

Diabetes: There is some concern that taking high doses of fish oil might make the control of blood sugar more difficult.

Familial adenomatous polyposis: There is some concern that fish oil might further increase the risk of getting cancer in people with this condition.

High blood pressure: Fish oil can lower blood pressure and might cause blood pressure to drop too low in people who are being treated with blood pressure-lowering medications.

HIV/AIDS and other conditions in which the immune system response is lowered: Higher doses of fish oil can lower the body's immune system response. This could be a problem for people whose immune system is already weak.

An implanted defibrillator (a surgically placed device to prevent irregular heartbeat): Some, but not all, research suggests that fish oil might increase the risk of irregular heartbeat in patients with an implanted defibrillator. Stay on the safe side by avoiding fish oil supplements.

Fish or seafood allergy: Some people who are allergic to seafood such as fish might also be allergic to fish oil supplements. There is no reliable information showing how likely people with seafood allergy are to have an allergic reaction to fish oil. Until more is known, advise patients allergic to seafood to avoid or use fish oil supplements cautiously.

Interactions

Interactions?

Moderate Interaction

Be cautious with this combination

!

  • Birth control pills (Contraceptive drugs) interacts with FISH OIL

    Fish oils seem to help reduce some fat levels in the blood. These fats are called triglycerides. Birth control pills might decrease the effectiveness of fish oils by reducing these fat levels in the blood.<nb>Some birth control pills include ethinyl estradiol and levonorgestrel (Triphasil), ethinyl estradiol and norethindrone (Ortho-Novum 1/35, Ortho-Novum 7/7/7), and others.

  • Medications for high blood pressure (Antihypertensive drugs) interacts with FISH OIL

    Fish oils seem to decrease blood pressure. Taking fish oils along with medications for high blood pressure might cause your blood pressure to go too low.<nb>Some medications for high blood pressure include captopril (Capoten), enalapril (Vasotec), losartan (Cozaar), valsartan (Diovan), diltiazem (Cardizem), Amlodipine (Norvasc), hydrochlorothiazide (HydroDiuril), furosemide (Lasix), and many others.

  • Orlistat (Xenical, Alli) interacts with FISH OIL

    Orlistat (Xenical, Alli) is used for weight loss. It prevents dietary fats from being absorbed from the gut. There is some concern that orlistat (Xenical, Alli) might also decrease absorption of fish oil when they are taken together. To avoid this potential interaction take orlistat (Xenical, Alli) and fish oil at least 2 hours apart.

Minor Interaction

Be watchful with this combination

!

  • Medications that slow blood clotting (Anticoagulant / Antiplatelet drugs) interacts with FISH OIL

    Fish oils might slow blood clotting. Taking fish oils along with medications that also slow clotting might increase the chances of bruising and bleeding.<nb>Some medications that slow blood clotting include aspirin, clopidogrel (Plavix), diclofenac (Voltaren, Cataflam, others), ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin, others), naproxen (Anaprox, Naprosyn, others), dalteparin (Fragmin), enoxaparin (Lovenox), heparin, warfarin (Coumadin), and others.

Dosing

Dosing

The following doses have been studied in scientific research:

ADULTS

BY MOUTH:

  • For high levels of fats called triglycerides in the blood (hypertriglyceridemia): Doses of 1-15 grams of fish oil daily for up to 6 months have been used in research. But most experts recommend taking a dose of fish oil that provides about 3.5 grams of omega-3 fatty acids daily. This amount is provided in four 1-gram capsules of prescription-only fish oil products. These prescription-only products include Lovaza (formerly known as Omacor, GlaxoSmithKline), Omtryg (Trygg Pharma, Inc.), and Epanova (AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals). You might need to take as many as 12 capsules daily of most non-prescription fish oil supplements to get the same amount of omega-3 fatty acids.
  • For a procedure to open a blocked or narrowed blood vessel (angioplasty): 6 grams of fish oil daily starting one month before angioplasty and continuing for one months after, followed by 3 grams daily for 6 months thereafter has been used. Also, 15 grams of fish oil has been taken daily for 3 weeks before angioplasty and for 6 months thereafter.
  • For preventing miscarriage in pregnant women with an autoimmune disorder called antiphospholipid syndrome : 5.1 grams of fish oil with a 1.5 EPA:DHA ratio taken daily for 3 years has been used.
  • For attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A specific supplement containing 400 mg of fish oil and 100 mg of evening primrose oil (Eye Q, Novasel) six capsules daily for 15 weeks has been used. Also, 250 mg of omega-3 fatty acids that have been complexed with phosphatidylserine have been used daily for 3 months.
  • For bipolar disorder: Fish oil providing 6.2 grams of EPA and 3.4 grams of DHA taken daily for 4 months has been used. Also, 1-6 grams of EPA for 12-16 weeks or omega-3 fatty acids containing 4.4-6.2 grams of EPA plus 2.4-3.4 grams of DHA for 4-16 weeks have been used.
  • For involuntary weight loss in people who are very ill (cachexia or wasting syndrome): 30 mL of a specific fish oil product (ACO Omega-3, Pharmacia, Stockholm, Sweden) providing 4.9 grams of EPA and 3.2 grams of DHA daily for 4 weeks has been used. 7.5 grams of fish oil daily providing EPA 4.7 grams and DHA 2.8 grams has been used for about 6 weeks. In addition, two cans of a fish oil nutritional supplement containing 1.09 grams of EPA and 0.96 grams of DHA per can have been used daily for up to 7 weeks.
  • For surgery to improve blood flow to the heart (CABG surgery): 4 grams of fish oil containing 2.04 grams of EPA and 1.3 grams of DHA has been used daily for one year.
  • For high blood pressure caused by the drug cyclosporine: 3 to 4 grams of omega-3 fatty acids daily for 6 months after a heart transplant has been used. 2-18 grams of fish oil daily for 1 to 12 months after a kidney transplant has also been used.
  • For kidney damage caused by the drug cyclosporine: 12 grams of fish oil daily for 2 months has been used after liver transplant. Also, 6 grams of fish oil daily for up to 3 months after kidney transplant has been used.
  • For menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea): A daily dose of 1080 mg of EPA and 720 mg DHA along with 1.5 mg of vitamin E daily for 2 months has been used. Also, 500-2500 mg of fish oil has been used daily for 2-4 months.
  • For heart failure: 600 to 4300 mg of omega-3 fatty acids daily for up to 12 months has been used. Also, 1 gram of fish oil daily for about 2.9 years has been used.
  • For complications after a heart transplant: 4 grams of fish oil containing 46.5% EPA and 37.8% of DHA daily for one year has been used.
  • For abnormal levels of blood fats in people with HIV/AIDS: Two capsules of a specific fish oil supplement (Omacor, Pronova BioPharma, Norway) containing 460 mg of EPA plus 380 mg of DHA twice daily for 12 weeks has been used.
  • For high blood pressure: 4 to 15 grams of fish oil daily, taken in single or divided doses, for up to 36 weeks has been used. Also, 3-15 grams of omega-3 fatty acids daily for 4 weeks has been used.
  • For a condition that slowly leads to kidney disease (IgA nephropathy): 1-12 grams of fish oil daily for 2-4 years has been used. Also, 3 grams of fish oil in combination with a drug called renin-angiotensin system blocker (RASB) daily for 6 months has been used.
  • For weak and brittle bones (osteoporosis): Four 500 mg capsules of a mixture of evening primrose and fish oil, taken three times daily with meals along with 600 mg of calcium carbonate for 18 months, has been used.
  • For scaly, itchy skin (psoriasis): Fish oil capsules containing 3.6 grams of EPA and 2.4 grams of DHA daily for 15 weeks along with UVB therapy have been used.
  • For psychosis: Fish oil capsules containing 700 mg of EPA and 480 mg of DHA mixed with tocopherols and other omega-3 fatty acids daily for 12 weeks has been used.
  • For Raynaud's syndrome: A daily dose of 3.96 grams of EPA and 2.64 grams of DHA for 12 weeks has been used.
  • For rheumatoid arthritis (RA): 10 grams of fish oil daily for 6 months, or fish oil containing 0.5-4.6 grams of EPA and 0.2-3.0 grams of DHA, sometimes along with vitamin E 15 IU, daily for up to 15 months has been used.
BY IV:
  • For scaly, itchy skin (psoriasis): 100-200 mL of a specific fish oil solution containing 2.1 to 4.2 grams of EPA and 2.1 to 4.2 grams of DHA (Omegavenous, Fresenius, Oberursel, Germany), given daily for 10 to 14 days, has been used.
  • For rheumatoid arthritis (RA): 0.1-0.2 mg/kg of omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil daily for 7 days has been used. Also, 0.2 grams/kg of a specific fish oil solution (Omegaven, Fresenius-Kabi) daily for 14 consecutive days, followed by 0.05 grams of fish oil by mouth daily for 20 weeks, have been used.
APPLIED TO THE SKIN:
  • For scaly, itchy skin (psoriasis): Applying fish oil under a dressing for 6 hours daily for 4 weeks has been used.
CHILDREN

BY MOUTH:
  • For a motor skill disorder marked by clumsiness (developmental coordination disorder or DCD): Fish oil providing 558 mg of EPA and 174 mg of DHA in three divided doses daily for 3 months has been used in children aged 5-12 years. A specific supplement containing fish oil in combination with evening primrose oil, thyme oil, and vitamin E (Efalex, Efamol Ltd), taken daily for 4 months, has been used.

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  • Pratt, C. M., Reiffel, J. A., Ellenbogen, K. A., Naccarelli, G. V., and Kowey, P. R. Efficacy and safety of prescription omega-3-acid ethyl esters for the prevention of recurrent symptomatic atrial fibrillation: a prospective study. Am Heart J 2009;158(2):163-169. View abstract.
  • Prescott, S. L., Barden, A. E., Mori, T. A., and Dunstan, J. A. Maternal fish oil supplementation in pregnancy modifies neonatal leukotriene production by cord-blood-derived neutrophils. Clin.Sci.(Lond) 2007;113(10):409-416. View abstract.
  • Preshaw, R. M., Attisha, R. P., and Hollingsworth, W. J. Randomized sequential trial of parenteral nutrition in healing of colonic anastomoses in man. Can.J.Surg. 1979;22(5):437-439. View abstract.
  • Prisco, D., Filippini, M., Francalanci, I., Paniccia, R., Gensini, G. F., and Serneri, G. G. Effect of n-3 fatty acid ethyl ester supplementation on fatty acid composition of the single platelet phospholipids and on platelet functions. Metabolism 1995;44(5):562-569. View abstract.
  • Puri, B. K., Koepp, M. J., Holmes, J., Hamilton, G., and Yuen, A. W. A 31-phosphorus neurospectroscopy study of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intervention with eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in patients with chronic refractory epilepsy. Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 2007;77(2):105-107. View abstract.
  • Pyzh, M. V., Gratsianskii, N. A., and Dobrovol'skii, A. B. [The effect of the long-term use of a diet enriched with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the fatty acid composition, fibrinolytic system indices and lipid spectrum of the blood in patients with ischemic heart disease]. Kardiologiia. 1993;33(10):46-50. View abstract.
  • Quinn, J. F., Raman, R., Thomas, R. G., Yurko-Mauro, K., Nelson, E. B., Van, Dyck C., Galvin, J. E., Emond, J., Jack, C. R., Jr., Weiner, M., Shinto, L., and Aisen, P. S. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and cognitive decline in Alzheimer disease: a randomized trial. JAMA 11-3-2010;304(17):1903-1911. View abstract.
  • Raatz, S. K., Redmon, J. B., Wimmergren, N., Donadio, J. V., and Bibus, D. M. Enhanced absorption of n-3 fatty acids from emulsified compared with encapsulated fish oil. J Am Diet Assoc 2009;109(6):1076-1081. View abstract.
  • Radack, K. and Deck, C. The effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood pressure: a methodologic analysis of the evidence. J Am Coll Nutr 1989;8(5):376-385. View abstract.
  • Radack, K. L., Deck, C. C., and Huster, G. A. n-3 fatty acid effects on lipids, lipoproteins, and apolipoproteins at very low doses: results of a randomized controlled trial in hypertriglyceridemic subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;51(4):599-605. View abstract.
  • Radack, K., Deck, C., and Huster, G. The effects of low doses of n-3 fatty acid supplementation on blood pressure in hypertensive subjects. A randomized controlled trial. Arch.Intern.Med. 1991;151(6):1173-1180. View abstract.
  • Ramakrishnan, U., Stein, A. D., Parra-Cabrera, S., Wang, M., Imhoff-Kunsch, B., Juarez-Marquez, S., Rivera, J., and Martorell, R. Effects of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation during pregnancy on gestational age and size at birth: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in Mexico. Food Nutr Bull 2010;31(2 Suppl):S108-S116. View abstract.
  • Ramel, A., Martinez, J. A., Kiely, M., Bandarra, N. M., and Thorsdottir, I. Effects of weight loss and seafood consumption on inflammation parameters in young, overweight and obese European men and women during 8 weeks of energy restriction. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 2010;64(9):987-993. View abstract.
  • Ramel, A., Martinez, J. A., Kiely, M., Bandarra, N. M., and Thorsdottir, I. Moderate consumption of fatty fish reduces diastolic blood pressure in overweight and obese European young adults during energy restriction. Nutrition 2010;26(2):168-174. View abstract.
  • Ramel, A., Parra, D., Martinez, J. A., Kiely, M., and Thorsdottir, I. Effects of seafood consumption and weight loss on fasting leptin and ghrelin concentrations in overweight and obese European young adults. Eur.J.Nutr. 2009;48(2):107-114. View abstract.
  • Rasmussen, B. M., Vessby, B., Uusitupa, M., Berglund, L., Pedersen, E., Riccardi, G., Rivellese, A. A., Tapsell, L., and Hermansen, K. Effects of dietary saturated, monounsaturated, and n-3 fatty acids on blood pressure in healthy subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83(2):221-226. View abstract.
  • Raz, R., Carasso, R. L., and Yehuda, S. The influence of short-chain essential fatty acids on children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. J.Child Adolesc.Psychopharmacol. 2009;19(2):167-177. View abstract.
  • Reddy, B. S. and Maruyama, H. Effect of dietary fish oil on azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis in male F344 rats. Cancer Res 1986;46(7):3367-3370. View abstract.
  • Reddy, B. S., Burill, C., and Rigotty, J. Effect of diets high in omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids on initiation and postinitiation stages of colon carcinogenesis. Cancer Res. 1-15-1991;51(2):487-491. View abstract.
  • Rees, A. M., Austin, M. P., and Parker, G. B. Omega-3 fatty acids as a treatment for perinatal depression: randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2008;42(3):199-205. View abstract.
  • Rees, D., Miles, E. A., Banerjee, T., Wells, S. J., Roynette, C. E., Wahle, K. W., and Calder, P. C. Dose-related effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on innate immune function in healthy humans: a comparison of young and older men. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83(2):331-342. View abstract.
  • Reid, S., Cawthon, P. M., Craig, J. C., Samuels, J. A., Molony, D. A., and Strippoli, G. F. Non-immunosuppressive treatment for IgA nephropathy. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2011;(3):CD003962. View abstract.
  • Rein, P., Saely, C. H., Aczel, S., Patsch, B., and Drexel, H. Omega-3 fatty acids significantly reduce postprandial triglyceridemia in male smokers: a pilot study. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc.Dis 2009;19(2):e3-e4. View abstract.
  • Reis, G. J., Boucher, T. M., Sipperly, M. E., Silverman, D. I., McCabe, C. H., Baim, D. S., Sacks, F. M., Grossman, W., and Pasternak, R. C. Randomised trial of fish oil for prevention of restenosis after coronary angioplasty. Lancet 7-22-1989;2(8656):177-181. View abstract.
  • Reis, G. J., Silverman, D. I., Boucher, T. M., Sipperly, M. E., Horowitz, G. L., Sacks, F. M., and Pasternak, R. C. Effects of two types of fish oil supplements on serum lipids and plasma phospholipid fatty acids in coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 11-15-1990;66(17):1171-1175. View abstract.
  • Reisman, J., Schachter, H. M., Dales, R. E., Tran, K., Kourad, K., Barnes, D., Sampson, M., Morrison, A., Gaboury, I., and Blackman, J. Treating asthma with omega-3 fatty acids: where is the evidence? A systematic review. BMC.Complement Altern Med 2006;6:26. View abstract.
  • Remans, P. H., Sont, J. K., Wagenaar, L. W., Wouters-Wesseling, W., Zuijderduin, W. M., Jongma, A., Breedveld, F. C., and Van Laar, J. M. Nutrient supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids and micronutrients in rheumatoid arthritis: clinical and biochemical effects. Eur J Clin Nutr 2004;58(6):839-845. View abstract.
  • Rhodes, L. E., Durham, B. H., Fraser, W. D., and Friedmann, P. S. Dietary fish oil reduces basal and ultraviolet B-generated PGE2 levels in skin and increases the threshold to provocation of polymorphic light eruption. J.Invest Dermatol. 1995;105(4):532-535. View abstract.
  • Richardson, A. J. Omega-3 fatty acids in ADHD and related neurodevelopmental disorders. Int Rev Psychiatry 2006;18(2):155-172. View abstract.
  • Riemer, S., Maes, M., Christophe, A., and Rief, W. Lowered omega-3 PUFAs are related to major depression, but not to somatization syndrome. J Affect.Disord 2010;123(1-3):173-180. View abstract.
  • Ripoll, L. H. Clinical psychopharmacology of borderline personality disorder: an update on the available evidence in light of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - 5. Curr.Opin.Psychiatry 2012;25(1):52-58. View abstract.
  • Rivellese, A. A., Maffettone, A., Iovine, C., Di Marino, L., Annuzzi, G., Mancini, M., and Riccardi, G. Long-term effects of fish oil on insulin resistance and plasma lipoproteins in NIDDM patients with hypertriglyceridemia. Diabetes Care 1996;19(11):1207-1213. View abstract.
  • Rizos, E. C., Ntzani, E. E., Bika, E., Kostapanos, M. S., and Elisaf, M. S. Association between omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and risk of major cardiovascular disease events: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 9-12-2012;308(10):1024-1033. View abstract.
  • Rizza, S., Tesauro, M., Cardillo, C., Galli, A., Iantorno, M., Gigli, F., Sbraccia, P., Federici, M., Quon, M. J., and Lauro, D. Fish oil supplementation improves endothelial function in normoglycemic offspring of patients with type 2 diabetes. Atherosclerosis 2009;206(2):569-574. View abstract.
  • Robinson, D. R., Knoell, C. T., Urakaze, M., Huang, R., Taki, H., Sugiyama, E., Xu, L. L., Yeh, E. T., Olesiak, W., Guo, M., and . Suppression of autoimmune disease by omega-3 fatty acids. Biochem Soc Trans. 1995;23(2):287-291. View abstract.
  • Robinson, D. R., Prickett, J. D., Makoul, G. T., Steinberg, A. D., and Colvin, R. B. Dietary fish oil reduces progression of established renal disease in (NZB x NZW)F1 mice and delays renal disease in BXSB and MRL/1 strains. Arthritis Rheum 1986;29(4):539-546. View abstract.
  • Robinson, D. R., Xu, L. L., Tateno, S., Guo, M., and Colvin, R. B. Suppression of autoimmune disease by dietary n-3 fatty acids. J Lipid Res 1993;34(8):1435-1444. View abstract.
  • Roche, H. M. and Gibney, M. J. Postprandial triacylglycerolaemia: the effect of low-fat dietary treatment with and without fish oil supplementation. Eur J Clin Nutr 1996;50(9):617-624. View abstract.
  • Rodriguez, G., Iglesia, I., Bel-Serrat, S., and Moreno, L. A. Effect of n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids during the perinatal period on later body composition. Br.J.Nutr. 2012;107 Suppl 2:S117-S128. View abstract.
  • Rodriguez-Palmero, M., Lopez-Sabater, M. C., Castellote-Bargallo, A. I., de la Torre-Boronat MC, and Rivero-Urgell, M. Administration of low doses of fish oil derived N-3 fatty acids to elderly subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr 1997;51(8):554-560. View abstract.
  • Rogers, P. J., Appleton, K. M., Kessler, D., Peters, T. J., Gunnell, D., Hayward, R. C., Heatherley, S. V., Christian, L. M., McNaughton, S. A., and Ness, A. R. No effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (EPA and DHA) supplementation on depressed mood and cognitive function: a randomised controlled trial. Br J Nutr 2008;99(2):421-431. View abstract.
  • Rollins, C. J. Effect of intravenous omega-3 fatty acids on clinical symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis. JPEN J Parenter.Enteral Nutr 2010;34(2):169-170. View abstract.
  • Roman, A. S., Schreher, J., Mackenzie, A. P., and Nathanielsz, P. W. Omega-3 fatty acids and decidual cell prostaglandin production in response to the inflammatory cytokine IL-1beta. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006;195(6):1693-1699. View abstract.
  • Romano, C., Cucchiara, S., Barabino, A., Annese, V., and Sferlazzas, C. Usefulness of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in addition to mesalazine in maintaining remission in pediatric Crohn's disease: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. World J.Gastroenterol. 12-7-2005;11(45):7118-7121. View abstract.
  • Romieu, I., Garcia-Esteban, R., Sunyer, J., Rios, C., Alcaraz-Zubeldia, M., Velasco, S. R., and Holguin, F. The effect of supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on markers of oxidative stress in elderly exposed to PM(2.5). Environ Health Perspect. 2008;116(9):1237-1242. View abstract.
  • Romieu, I., Tellez-Rojo, M. M., Lazo, M., Manzano-Patino, A., Cortez-Lugo, M., Julien, P., Belanger, M. C., Hernandez-Avila, M., and Holguin, F. Omega-3 fatty acid prevents heart rate variability reductions associated with particulate matter. Am J Respir.Crit Care Med 12-15-2005;172(12):1534-1540. View abstract.
  • Rondanelli, M., Giacosa, A., Opizzi, A., Pelucchi, C., La, Vecchia C., Montorfano, G., Negroni, M., Berra, B., Politi, P., and Rizzo, A. M. Effect of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation on depressive symptoms and on health-related quality of life in the treatment of elderly women with depression: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. J.Am.Coll.Nutr. 2010;29(1):55-64. View abstract.
  • Aarsetoy, H., Ponitz, V., Nilsen, O. B., Grundt, H., Harris, W. S., and Nilsen, D. W. Low levels of cellular omega-3 increase the risk of ventricular fibrillation during the acute ischaemic phase of a myocardial infarction. Resuscitation 2008;78(3):258-264. View abstract.
  • Abbey, M., Clifton, P., Kestin, M., Belling, B., and Nestel, P. Effect of fish oil on lipoproteins, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase, and lipid transfer protein activity in humans. Arteriosclerosis 1990;10(1):85-94. View abstract.
  • Adam, O., Beringer, C., Kless, T., Lemmen, C., Adam, A., Wiseman, M., Adam, P., Klimmek, R., and Forth, W. Anti-inflammatory effects of a low arachidonic acid diet and fish oil in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatol.Int. 2003;23(1):27-36. View abstract.
  • Adam, O., Schubert, A., Adam, A., Antretter, N., and Forth, W. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on renal function and electrolyte excretion in aged persons. Eur J Med Res 2-21-1998;3(1-2):111-118. View abstract.
  • Adams, P. B., Lawson, S., Sanigorski, A., and Sinclair, A. J. Arachidonic acid to eicosapentaenoic acid ratio in blood correlates positively with clinical symptoms of depression. Lipids 1996;31 Suppl:S157-S161. View abstract.
  • Agostoni, C., Harvie, A., McCulloch, D. L., Demellweek, C., Cockburn, F., Giovannini, M., Murray, G., Harkness, R. A., and Riva, E. A randomized trial of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in infants with phenylketonuria. Dev.Med Child Neurol. 2006;48(3):207-212. View abstract.
  • Agostoni, C., Massetto, N., Biasucci, G., Rottoli, A., Bonvissuto, M., Bruzzese, M. G., Giovannini, M., and Riva, E. Effects of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on fatty acid status and visual function in treated children with hyperphenylalaninemia. J Pediatr 2000;137(4):504-509. View abstract.
  • Agostoni, C., Verduci, E., Massetto, N., Fiori, L., Radaelli, G., Riva, E., and Giovannini, M. Long term effects of long chain polyunsaturated fats in hyperphenylalaninemic children. Arch Dis Child 2003;88(7):582-583. View abstract.
  • Agostoni, C., Zuccotti, G. V., Radaelli, G., Besana, R., Podesta, A., Sterpa, A., Rottoli, A., Riva, E., and Giovannini, M. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and time at achievement of gross motor milestones in healthy infants: a randomized, prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89(1):64-70. View abstract.
  • Albert, C. M., Hennekens, C. H., O'Donnell, C. J., Ajani, U. A., Carey, V. J., Willett, W. C., Ruskin, J. N., and Manson, J. E. Fish consumption and risk of sudden cardiac death. JAMA 1-7-1998;279(1):23-28. View abstract.
  • Alekseeva, R. I., Sharafetdinov, KhKh, Plotnikova, O. A., Meshcheriakova, V. A., Mal'tsev, G. I., and Kulakova, S. N. [Effects of a diet including linseed oil on clinical and metabolic parameters in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus]. Vopr.Pitan. 2000;69(6):32-35. View abstract.
  • Alexopoulos, E., Stangou, M., Pantzaki, A., Kirmizis, D., and Memmos, D. Treatment of severe IgA nephropathy with omega-3 fatty acids: the effect of a "very low dose" regimen. Ren Fail. 2004;26(4):453-459. View abstract.
  • Almallah, Y. Z., Richardson, S., O'Hanrahan, T., Mowat, N. A., Brunt, P. W., Sinclair, T. S., Ewen, S., Heys, S. D., and Eremin, O. Distal procto-colitis, natural cytotoxicity, and essential fatty acids. Am.J.Gastroenterol. 1998;93(5):804-809. View abstract.
  • Alpigiani, M. G., Ravera, G., Buzzanca, C., Devescovi, R., Fiore, P., and Iester, A. [The use of n-3 fatty acids in chronic juvenile arthritis]. Pediatr.Med.Chir 1996;18(4):387-390. View abstract.
  • Amin, A. A., Menon, R. A., Reid, K. J., Harris, W. S., and Spertus, J. A. Acute coronary syndrome patients with depression have low blood cell membrane omega-3 fatty acid levels. Psychosom Med 2008;70(8):856-862. View abstract.
  • Amminger, G. P., Berger, G. E., Schafer, M. R., Klier, C., Friedrich, M. H., and Feucht, M. Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation in children with autism: a double-blind randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study. Biol.Psychiatry 2-15-2007;61(4):551-553. View abstract.
  • Anandan, C., Nurmatov, U., and Sheikh, A. Omega 3 and 6 oils for primary prevention of allergic disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. Allergy 2009;64(6):840-848. View abstract.
  • Anonymous. Fish oil and plasma fibrinogen. BMJ. 1988;297(6648):615-616.
  • Anonymous. Health effects of omega-3 fatty acids on asthma. Evid.Rep.Technol.Assess.(Summ.) 2004;(91):1-7. View abstract.
  • Anti, M., Armelao, F., Marra, G., Percesepe, A., Bartoli, G. M., Palozza, P., Parrella, P., Canetta, C., Gentiloni, N., De, Vitis, I, and . Effects of different doses of fish oil on rectal cell proliferation in patients with sporadic colonic adenomas. Gastroenterology 1994;107(6):1709-1718. View abstract.
  • Anti, M., Marra, G., Armelao, F., Bartoli, G. M., Ficarelli, R., Percesepe, A., De, Vitis, I, Maria, G., Sofo, L., Rapaccini, G. L., and . Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on rectal mucosal cell proliferation in subjects at risk for colon cancer. Gastroenterology 1992;103(3):883-891.
  • Antypa, N., Van der Does, A. J., Smelt, A. H., and Rogers, R. D. Omega-3 fatty acids (fish-oil) and depression-related cognition in healthy volunteers. J.Psychopharmacol. 2009;23(7):831-840. View abstract.
  • Appel, L. J., Miller, E. R., III, Seidler, A. J., and Whelton, P. K. Does supplementation of diet with 'fish oil' reduce blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Arch Intern Med 6-28-1993;153(12):1429-1438. View abstract.
  • Arab, K., Rossary, A., Flourie, F., Tourneur, Y., and Steghens, J. P. Docosahexaenoic acid enhances the antioxidant response of human fibroblasts by upregulating gamma-glutamyl-cysteinyl ligase and glutathione reductase. Br J Nutr 2006;95(1):18-26. View abstract.
  • Archer, S. L., Green, D., Chamberlain, M., Dyer, A. R., and Liu, K. Association of dietary fish and n-3 fatty acid intake with hemostatic factors in the coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) study. Arterioscler Thromb.Vasc.Biol 1998;18(7):1119-1123.
  • Arm, J. P., Horton, C. E., Mencia-Huerta, J. M., House, F., Eiser, N. M., Clark, T. J., Spur, B. W., and Lee, T. H. Effect of dietary supplementation with fish oil lipids on mild asthma. Thorax 1988;43(2):84-92. View abstract.
  • Arm, J. P., Horton, C. E., Spur, B. W., Mencia-Huerta, J. M., and Lee, T. H. The effects of dietary supplementation with fish oil lipids on the airways response to inhaled allergen in bronchial asthma. Am Rev Respir.Dis 1989;139(6):1395-1400. View abstract.
  • Arsenault, L. N., Matthan, N., Scott, T. M., Dallal, G., Lichtenstein, A. H., Folstein, M. F., Rosenberg, I., and Tucker, K. L. Validity of estimated dietary eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid intakes determined by interviewer-administered food frequency questionnaire among older adults with mild-to-moderate cognitive impairment or dementia. Am J Epidemiol 7-1-2009;170(1):95-103. View abstract.
  • Arteaga, A., Villanueva, C. L., Skorin, C., Guasch, V., Solis, de Ovando, Velasco, N., Acosta, A. M., and Leighton, F. [Dyslipidemic patients with coronary cardiopathy. Effect of different doses of OMEGA-3 fatty acids on serum lipids and lipoproteins]. Rev Med Chil. 1993;121(6):618-625. View abstract.
  • Arterburn, L. M., Hall, E. B., and Oken, H. Distribution, interconversion, and dose response of n-3 fatty acids in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83(6 Suppl):1467S-1476S. View abstract.
  • Aslan, A. and Triadafilopoulos, G. Fish oil fatty acid supplementation in active ulcerative colitis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Am J Gastroenterol 1992;87(4):432-437. View abstract.
  • Asserhoj, M., Nehammer, S., Matthiessen, J., Michaelsen, K. F., and Lauritzen, L. Maternal fish oil supplementation during lactation may adversely affect long-term blood pressure, energy intake, and physical activity of 7-year-old boys. J.Nutr. 2009;139(2):298-304. View abstract.
  • Aucamp, A. K., Schoeman, H. S., and Coetzee, J. H. Pilot trial to determine the efficacy of a low dose of fish oil in the treatment of angina pectoris in the geriatric patient. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1993;49(3):687-689. View abstract.
  • Augood, C., Chakravarthy, U., Young, I., Vioque, J., de Jong, P. T., Bentham, G., Rahu, M., Seland, J., Soubrane, G., Tomazzoli, L., Topouzis, F., Vingerling, J. R., and Fletcher, A. E. Oily fish consumption, dietary docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid intakes, and associations with neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;88(2):398-406. View abstract.
  • Badia-Tahull, M. B., Llop-Talaveron, J. M., Leiva-Badosa, E., Biondo, S., Farran-Teixido, L., Ramon-Torrell, J. M., and Jodar-Masanes, R. A randomised study on the clinical progress of high-risk elective major gastrointestinal surgery patients treated with olive oil-based parenteral nutrition with or without a fish oil supplement. Br.J.Nutr. 2010;104(5):737-741. View abstract.
  • Badimon, L., Vilahur, G., and Padro, T. Nutraceuticals and atherosclerosis: human trials. Cardiovasc.Ther. 2010;28(4):202-215. View abstract.

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